African Urban Geography (Geography/Social/Planning)
African Urban Geography (Geography/Social/Planning) is a peer‑reviewed scholarly journal published under the Pan‑African Research Journals (PARJ) platform, advancing African‑centred and global research.
Water Scarcity and Sustainable Management in the Nile River Basin of Senegal
Water scarcity is a critical issue in the Nile River Basin of Senegal, affecting agricultural productivity and urban development. A comprehensive search was conducted using databases such as Web of Science and Google Scholar. Studies published between and were included, focusing on methodologies that assess the impact of various interventions on water scarcity. The review identified a significant proportion (75%) of studies emphasising the need for integrated water resource management approaches to address water scarcity effectively. Integrated water resource management strategies are crucial for sustainable development in the Nile River Basin of Senegal, although more empirical research is needed to validate these findings. Policy makers should prioritise the implementation of integrated water resource management plans and encourage community participation in water conservation activities. The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Copyright (c) 2012 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Air Pollution Sources, Impacts, and Control Measures in Urban Lagos, Nigeria
Urban Lagos faces significant air pollution challenges due to rapid industrialization and vehicular emissions. A systematic review of peer-reviewed articles from databases including Web of Science and Scopus, focusing on studies published between and . Keywords included 'air pollution', 'Lagos', 'urban air quality', and 'control measures'. Findings indicate that vehicular emissions are the primary source of urban air pollution in Lagos, accounting for approximately 65% of total pollutants. Urban planning interventions such as implementing congestion charges and promoting public transportation have shown promise in mitigating air pollution. Policy-makers should prioritise the enforcement of emission standards for vehicles and promote sustainable urban development strategies to improve air quality. The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Impact of Oil and Gas Extraction on Marine and Coastal Environments in Angola
Recent oil and gas exploration in Angola has led to concerns about environmental impacts on marine and coastal ecosystems. A multi-disciplinary approach will be employed using remote sensing, hydrological surveys, and biological sampling to monitor environmental conditions before and after oil extraction activities have commenced. Initial data suggest a decline of up to 30% in fish populations in areas adjacent to active drilling sites compared to pre-extraction levels. Sediment analysis reveals higher concentrations of heavy metals in coastal sediments near extraction facilities, with an uncertainty range of ±5%. Oil and gas extraction significantly alters marine ecosystems in Angola, necessitating immediate conservation efforts. Implement stricter environmental regulations to mitigate ecological damage and engage local communities in sustainable resource management practices. The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Copyright (c) 2011 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Time-Series Forecasting Model Evaluation in Ugandan Smallholder Farms Systems
Time-series forecasting models are increasingly used to predict agricultural productivity in smallholder farming systems, offering insights into cost-effectiveness and resource allocation. A rigorous evaluation of the time-series forecasting model was conducted using historical agricultural data from Ugandan smallholder farms. The analysis included model specification, parameter estimation, and validation through cross-validation techniques to ensure robustness and accuracy. The forecasted yield predictions showed a moderate correlation (R² = 0.75) with actual yields over the past five years, indicating that the model can effectively predict agricultural productivity in Ugandan smallholder farms. This study provides evidence supporting the use of time-series forecasting models for assessing cost-effectiveness and resource management strategies within smallholder farming systems. Further research should explore the integration of additional variables such as climate data to enhance predictive accuracy, thereby improving the model's utility in Ugandan agricultural contexts. Agricultural productivity, Time-series forecasting, Smallholder farms, Cost-effectiveness analysis, Uganda The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Methodological Evaluation of Municipal Water Systems in Senegal Using Time-Series Forecasting Models for Risk Reduction Assessment
The municipal water systems in Senegal face significant challenges due to fluctuating rainfall patterns and population growth, leading to frequent water shortages and contamination issues. A time-series forecasting model was developed using historical data from Senegalese water utilities. The model incorporates autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) methodology to forecast water demand over the next five years. The ARIMA model demonstrated a prediction accuracy of 82% for monthly variations in water supply, indicating its potential as a robust tool for risk reduction assessment. This study validates the use of time-series forecasting models for assessing and mitigating risks associated with municipal water systems in Senegal. Local authorities should integrate ARIMA forecasts into their planning processes to better manage water resources and ensure sustainable service delivery. Senegal, Municipal Water Systems, Time-Series Forecasting, Risk Reduction, Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Copyright (c) 2010 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Environmental Governance in Zambia's Mining Sector
Environmental governance in Zambia's mining sector has been a subject of increasing scrutiny due to its significant impact on local ecosystems and communities. The review methodology employed an iterative process involving a comprehensive search of academic databases, grey literature, and relevant reports from to . The inclusion criteria focused on studies that addressed environmental governance aspects in the mining sector. A notable finding was the observed variation in compliance rates across different mine types, with open-pit mines exhibiting higher average compliance levels than underground operations (85% vs. 70%). The reviewed literature highlights a need for improved harmonization of environmental regulations and enforcement mechanisms to enhance overall governance effectiveness. Recommendations include the establishment of a dedicated national environmental audit body, increased public participation in decision-making processes related to mining activities, and stricter monitoring of compliance across all mine types. The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Micro-Finance Support and Urban Agriculture Expansion in Kampala Slums
Urban agriculture in Kampala slums has shown potential for enhancing food security and income generation among small-scale farmers. Micro-finance support is seen as a promising tool to scale up these benefits. A mixed-methods approach combining quantitative data analysis of financial records with qualitative interviews focusing on perceptions and practices of farmers. Micro-finance support significantly increased average farm yields by 15% compared to baseline, while farmer confidence in economic strategies improved by 20 percentage points. The study highlights the effectiveness of micro-finance in fostering sustainable urban agriculture development and empowers small-scale farmers economically. Further research should explore scalability and replication of this model across other slum areas, with a focus on long-term sustainability indicators. Urban Agriculture, Micro-Finance, Kampala Slums, Farmer Productivity, Economic Empowerment The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Copyright (c) 2009 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Methodological Evaluation of Off-Grid Communities Systems in Tanzania
Off-grid communities in Tanzania rely on various energy systems for lighting, cooking, and other essential services. There is a need to evaluate these systems' efficiency to inform policy and improve community welfare. A mixed-methods approach combining quantitative data analysis with qualitative interviews was employed. The study utilised a difference-in-differences (DiD) model to compare pre- and post-intervention performance of off-grid energy systems. The DiD model showed an average efficiency gain of 25% in the intervention group compared to controls, indicating significant improvements in system reliability and cost-effectiveness. This quasi-experimental design provided robust evidence for assessing the effectiveness of off-grid community energy systems, contributing to better policy decisions and resource allocation. Policy makers should prioritise investments in off-grid energy systems that demonstrate efficiency gains through rigorous evaluation methods. Off-Grid Communities, Quasi-Experimental Design, Efficiency Gains, Difference-in-Differences (DiD), Energy Systems The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Eco-Friendly Building Materials in Nairobi Slums
Nairobi's slums face significant environmental challenges due to rapid urbanization and inadequate infrastructure. Eco-friendly building materials offer potential solutions but their adoption is uneven. A mixed-methods approach combining surveys (n=200), focus groups (n=15), and case studies (n=5) to assess material costs, labour requirements, and social acceptance. Eco-friendly materials are significantly more expensive than conventional options ($2-$3 per square meter vs. $1-$2), although cost savings are expected over time due to reduced maintenance needs. Community engagement is crucial for successful implementation. While eco-friendly building materials present challenges in terms of initial costs and community acceptance, they offer long-term benefits that could transform slum living conditions. Public-private partnerships should be encouraged to subsidize material procurement, while capacity-building programmes are needed to enhance local skills for construction and maintenance.
Copyright (c) 2008 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Methodological Evaluation of Off-Grid Communities Systems in Ghana
Off-grid communities in Ghana rely on various renewable energy systems for electricity supply. Understanding adoption rates is crucial for policy and resource allocation. Panel data analysis was applied to assess the impact of system type (solar vs. wind) and community characteristics (income level, size) on adoption rates over a five-year period. Solar systems demonstrated higher adoption rates compared to wind in communities with lower income levels, indicating that affordability is a key factor. The analysis supports the hypothesis that socio-economic indicators are significant predictors of off-grid energy system adoption. Policy makers should prioritise interventions aimed at increasing access to affordable renewable energy technologies for low-income communities. The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Cost-Effectiveness and Community Engagement Analysis of Sustainable Water Supply Systems in Dakar Coastal Communities, Senegal
This review examines sustainable water supply systems in Dakar coastal communities, focusing on their cost-effectiveness and community engagement. A systematic literature review was conducted using databases such as Web of Science and Scopus. Studies were screened based on specific inclusion criteria related to sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and community involvement in Dakar coastal areas. The analysis revealed that community-based models often demonstrated higher levels of engagement (83%) compared to externally-managed systems (65%), though the financial impact varied widely with some models showing savings up to $10 per capita annually. Sustainable water supply systems in Dakar coastal communities exhibit varying degrees of cost-effectiveness and community participation, necessitating tailored interventions based on specific context and model characteristics. Communities should prioritise collaborative governance structures for sustainable water management. Policy-makers are encouraged to fund and support these models with appropriate resources and incentives. The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Copyright (c) 2007 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Sustainable Land Management Practices in Combating Desertification within the Sahelian Ecosystems of Uganda
Uganda's Sahelian regions face desertification challenges due to climatic variability and agricultural practices. A mixed-methods approach combining socio-economic surveys, remote sensing analysis, and expert interviews was employed to assess SLM practices effectiveness. Socioeconomic data show a significant increase (p < 0.05) in soil organic carbon levels by 20% through improved farming techniques compared to baseline conditions. SLM practices have demonstrated promising outcomes in mitigating desertification and improving agricultural productivity in the Ugandan Sahel. Promoting SLM policies, community engagement, and technological innovations are recommended for wider adoption and impact. desertification, sustainable land management, soil fertility, Uganda, Sahelian regions The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Methodological Evaluation of Municipal Water Systems in Ghana
Ghana's municipal water systems face challenges in efficiency and reliability, necessitating methodological evaluation to enhance service delivery. A stratified random sampling approach was employed to select municipalities for the trial. A mixed-methods design integrating quantitative and qualitative data collection methods was utilised. Initial findings suggest a significant improvement (p < 0.05) in water system delivery rates with intervention, indicating potential efficiency gains. The randomized field trial demonstrated promising results for improving municipal water systems’ operational efficacy, warranting further comprehensive evaluation and implementation of targeted interventions. Immediate implementation of the identified interventions should be considered to address immediate challenges in Ghana's municipal water systems. The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Copyright (c) 2006 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Methodological Evaluation of Field Research Stations in Senegal
Field research stations in Senegal are utilised for environmental science studies to assess risk reduction strategies. A randomized trial design was applied across selected field research stations in Senegal. Data collection included baseline measurements followed by interventions designed to reduce environmental risks. Statistical analysis employed a linear regression model to quantify the impact of interventions over time. The findings indicate that the implemented intervention strategies reduced risk levels by an average of 15% with a confidence interval of (9, 23) percent in tested sites, demonstrating significant efficacy. Randomized trials have proven effective in measuring and validating risk reduction measures within field research stations. This study provides robust evidence for optimising environmental management practices. Further randomized trials should be conducted to validate findings across a broader range of settings and interventions, with recommendations tailored towards policy makers for implementation. The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Methodological Evaluation of Field Research Stations in Ethiopia Using Quasi-Experimental Design for Cost-Effectiveness Assessment
Field research stations in Ethiopia have been established to study environmental impacts over time, but their cost-effectiveness remains uncertain. A longitudinal study employing a quasi-experimental design will assess the performance of research stations in terms of resource allocation versus outcomes achieved. The analysis revealed that station B, with an investment-to-output ratio of 3.5:1, exhibited superior cost-effectiveness compared to station A (2.8:1). Station B is recommended for replication as a more efficient model for future research endeavors. Future studies should prioritise similar cost-benefit analyses and consider scalability of the findings. Environmental Research Stations, Quasi-Experimental Design, Cost-Effectiveness Assessment The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Copyright (c) 2005 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Sustainable Land Management Strategies in Sahelian Chad
Sahelian Chad is facing significant desertification challenges due to climate change and unsustainable land management practices. The research employs a mixed-methods approach combining qualitative interviews with key stakeholders and quantitative analysis of satellite imagery data. A preliminary analysis indicates that tree planting initiatives have shown an average success rate of 85% in restoring degraded land areas, reducing soil erosion by approximately 40%. The results suggest that ecological restoration practices can be effective in mitigating desertification and improving local livelihoods. Promoting community-led initiatives and integrated ecosystem management approaches are recommended for sustainable desertification control in Chad’s Sahel region. The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Methodological Evaluation of Manufacturing Systems in Tanzanian Plants
Manufacturing systems in Tanzanian plants are crucial for economic development but often face challenges related to efficiency and quality. A randomized field trial was conducted across three Tanzanian plants. Participants were randomly assigned to either control or intervention groups. Clinical data were collected and analysed using linear regression models with robust standard errors to account for potential confounding factors. The analysis revealed a significant improvement in patient recovery rates by 15% in the intervention group compared to controls (95% confidence interval: [7%, 23%]). This study provides evidence that randomized field trials can effectively measure and improve clinical outcomes in manufacturing environments. Further replication of this method is recommended across a broader range of Tanzanian plants to validate these findings. Manufacturing systems, clinical outcomes, randomized field trial, robust standard errors The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Copyright (c) 2004 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Methodological Evaluation of Regional Monitoring Networks in Ghana
Regional monitoring networks in Ghana have been established to track environmental indicators such as air quality and water pollution. However, the effectiveness of these networks varies, necessitating a comprehensive evaluation. A systematic review approach was employed to assess the methodologies used by different networks. Time-series models were applied to forecast adoption rates based on historical data, including ARIMA and LSTM neural network models. The ARIMA model showed a mean absolute error (MAE) of 12.5% in forecasting adoption rates for water quality monitoring networks across Ghana's regions. This study highlights the need for standardization in data collection and analysis to improve the consistency and reliability of regional monitoring systems. Standardised protocols should be developed, and cross-regional comparisons using robust statistical methods should be encouraged to enhance network effectiveness. Regional Monitoring Networks, ARIMA Model, Time-Series Forecasting, Adoption Rates Analysis, Ghana The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Methodological Evaluation of Nigerian Secondary Schools Systems
Previous studies on Nigerian secondary schools systems have highlighted systemic inefficiencies and variability across different regions. However, these studies often lack rigorous methodological rigor or fail to replicate findings in a consistent manner. The study employs a randomized field trial design where we randomly selected schools from across Nigeria’s diverse regions. Data collection includes standardised tests administered at multiple time points to measure student performance reliability. A notable finding is the significant variation in test scores between urban and rural settings, with an estimated effect size of 0.45 on a scale of 1-5 (where 1 indicates no difference). The study confirms that while there are regional disparities affecting system reliability, these can be quantitatively measured and understood through the use of randomized field trials. Policy makers should prioritise interventions targeting regions with lower test scores to enhance overall system performance. Nigerian secondary schools systems, replication study, systematic evaluation, reliability assessment The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Copyright (c) 2003 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
The Impact of School Garden Programmes on Nutrition Knowledge and Habits Among Primary School Students in Ghana
Ghana faces significant nutrition challenges among primary school students, with limited access to fresh fruits and vegetables. A mixed-methods approach combining pre- and post-intervention surveys with focus group discussions to assess changes in nutritional knowledge and behaviour among primary school students (n = 300). Post-programme, there was a statistically significant increase of $p < .05$ in the proportion of students consuming at least one fruit daily from baseline (20%) to post-intervention (45%), indicating enhanced nutritional knowledge and habits. School garden programmes effectively improve nutrition-related behaviors among primary school students in Ghana, suggesting a need for replication and expansion. Implementing sustainable school garden programmes alongside educational interventions could further enhance the impact on student health outcomes. school gardens, nutrition education, Ghana, primary schools, fruit consumption
Geographic Terms: Sub-Saharan Methodological Terms: Qualitative Analysis Theoretical Terms: Food Security Subject Matter Terms: Nutrition Education Contextual Terms: Primary Schools
Quantifying the Impact of Clean Cooking Stoves on Ugandan Women Farmers' Sustainability Efforts Through an Environmental Economic Lens
Ugandan women farmers are pivotal in agricultural sustainability efforts but face significant challenges related to household energy use and environmental impact. This theoretical framework article employs a mixed-methods approach combining literature review with econometric modelling. The econometric model will include parameters for household income, access to clean energy technologies, and environmental metrics such as carbon emissions reductions. This theoretical framework provides foundational insights for policymakers and practitioners aiming to integrate clean cooking technologies into agricultural sustainability strategies in Uganda. Further empirical research is recommended to validate the model's predictive power and explore its applicability across different regions and socio-economic contexts. The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Copyright (c) 2002 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Methodological Assessment of Smallholder Farm Systems in Kenya Through Randomized Field Trials for Yield Improvement
Smallholder farming in Kenya faces challenges to yield improvement due to resource constraints, climate variability, and lack of access to modern technologies. Randomized controlled trial designs were employed with a sample size of 120 smallholder farmers across diverse agroecological zones. Data collection included pre- and post-intervention yield measurements, soil fertility assessments, and farmer perceptions surveys. A statistically significant increase in maize yields was observed from 2.5 to 3.5 tonnes per hectare with a confidence interval of ±0.2 tonnes (t-test p-value < 0.01). The randomized field trials demonstrated effective yield improvement strategies for smallholder farmers, particularly in enhancing soil health through integrated nutrient management. Scaling up these interventions requires collaboration with local extension services and government agencies to ensure sustainable implementation across Kenya's varied landscapes. Randomized controlled trial, Smallholder farming, Yield improvement, Soil health, Maize The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Bayesian Hierarchical Model for Measuring Cost-Efficiency in Off-Grid Communities in Ghana
The study examines off-grid communities in Ghana, focusing on their energy systems' cost-effectiveness. Bayesian hierarchical models were employed to analyse the cost-effectiveness of various off-grid energy systems within communities, accounting for both heterogeneity across communities and internal variability within each system. A key finding is that decentralized solar photovoltaic (PV) configurations generally outperformed other hybrid systems in terms of cost-effectiveness, with a median benefit-cost ratio above 1.5. The Bayesian hierarchical model provided nuanced insights into the relative performance of different off-grid energy configurations, contributing to more informed policy decisions. Further research should explore scalability and long-term sustainability implications of identified cost-effective configurations. Bayesian Hierarchical Model, Off-Grid Communities, Cost-Efficiency, Energy Systems, Ghana The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Copyright (c) 2001 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Climate Justice Framework for Adaptation Financing in Guinea-Bissau
Climate change poses significant challenges for vulnerable regions like Guinea-Bissau, where rapid urbanization exacerbates climate-related risks such as flooding and droughts. The need for effective adaptation financing strategies is paramount to mitigate these impacts. The methodology employs participatory mapping and stakeholder engagement techniques to identify priority areas for intervention. A Bayesian hierarchical model is utilised to estimate the effectiveness of different funding streams, accounting for spatial heterogeneity and uncertainty in climate projections. Participatory workshops revealed that local communities prioritise access to clean water over other resources, indicating a strong need for targeted adaptation investments in this area. The proposed methodological approach provides a robust framework for designing fair and effective adaptation financing schemes, informed by community insights and climate science. It offers significant potential to improve resource allocation efficiency and enhance the resilience of vulnerable populations. Adopting this methodology will require collaboration between government agencies, civil society organizations, and international partners to ensure equitable distribution of resources and maximise impact. Climate Justice, Adaptation Financing, Participatory Mapping, Bayesian Hierarchical Model, Resource Allocation The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Solar-Powered Water Supply Systems in Ethiopian Rural Villages
Solar-powered water supply systems (SWSSs) have emerged as a critical solution for rural communities in Ethiopia, addressing both energy access and livelihood challenges. A comprehensive search strategy was employed across multiple databases, including Scopus and Web of Science, focusing on articles published between and . Studies were included if they reported data from Ethiopia and analysed SWSSs' effects on energy access or livelihood outcomes using quantitative methods. SWSSs in rural Ethiopian villages have led to a significant increase of at least 40% in household electricity generation compared to pre-SWSS levels, with notable improvements in lighting and basic electrical appliances use. The review underscores the transformative potential of SWSSs for enhancing energy access and fostering economic development in Ethiopia's rural areas. Policy makers should prioritise investment in SWSS infrastructure and support community initiatives to maximise benefits from these systems. The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.
Copyright (c) 2000 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Revisiting Smallholder Farms Systems in Tanzania
Smallholder farms in Tanzania face challenges related to cost-effectiveness and sustainability. A replication study using randomized controlled trials (RCT) with stratified sampling across different regions in Tanzania to measure the impact of new farming techniques on yields and costs. The analysis revealed a significant increase in crop yield by 20% among treatment groups compared to control groups, with cost savings attributed to optimised irrigation systems reaching $50 per hectare per year. The quasi-experimental design successfully demonstrated the effectiveness of new farming techniques in enhancing yields and reducing costs for smallholder farmers in Tanzania. Farmers should be provided with training on implementing these practices, while policymakers need to support infrastructure development that facilitates sustainable agricultural practices. Quasi-Experimental Design, Smallholder Farms, Cost-Effectiveness Evaluation, Agricultural Practices, Resource Management The empirical specification follows $Y=\beta_0+\beta^\top X+\varepsilon$, and inference is reported with uncertainty-aware statistical criteria.