Introduction
As a former part of Sudan, South Sudan was one of the most populous countries in Africa prior to its separation , conflict rises and western influence . However, the split with Sudan led to an immediate drop in population. While the ongoing conflicts have caused ongoin g losses, famine and disease reduced the total number of people living there at an even faster rate. As a developing nation, South Sudan faces a difficult path forward with such a small number of citizens. When South Sudan gained independence from Sudan on July 9th, 2011, celebrations erupted worldwide. Although celebrations were spread throughout South
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 6 Sudan and across Sudan, not all citizens were happy with this newfound freedom. There had been conflict between supporters of both sides for years prior to the split, and this only led to more resentment against the government after independence. While there have been some improvements in recent years, this is still a very poor country with serious human rights issues. Despite being one of the newest nations in the world, South Sudan has a long history- dating back to ancient times. The name 'South Sudan' derives from its southerly part. As one of the least developed nations in the world, South Sudan faces many difficult challenges as it struggles to develop its rich culture and natural resources.
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 7 Until its history is fully documented, current trends in South Sudan will remain unknown to the future. Overcoming poverty and establishing stability will be difficult without first overcoming historical trauma stemming from its early development days. However, having gone through what they have so far, South Sudanese are certainly worthy of admiration for what tomorrow will bring.
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Pre-war South Sudan South Sudan is a landlocked country in Africa; it was formerly called Sudan. Before the country gained its independence from Sudan in 2011, it was known as Southern Sudan. This region is home to many historical sites, natural wonders, and diverse cultures. Many of its natural resources include gold, copper, chromium, and other minerals. The region's animals include elephants, giraffes, and lions, making it a popular tourist destination.
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 9 Despite having many advantages, the pre- war South Sudan also had significant problems, including poverty, illiteracy, and poor health care. The pre-war South Sudan had a largely agricultural economy. Most of the population worked in agriculture, mainly cultivating sorghum, cotton, and maize. Other major industries include livestock herding and trading. Gold was the country's main export; however, high transportation costs limited its marketability. The government recognized the need to diversify their exports if they wanted to strengthen their economy. Additionally, they wanted to create jobs for their people to reduce unemployment and underemployment rates. They also wanted
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 10 to provide resources for education and public health services across their country. However, civil war hampered their efforts at economic growth for many years. Natural resources are the second most important factor in the economy of pre-war South Sudan. Oil is one of the most valuable natural resources in this region. Other natural resources include copper, gold, and chromium. Diamonds are also found in some areas, but are not as lucrative as gold or copper. Some of these natural resources were readily accessible; others required more laborious methods for extraction. However, transporting these goods proved to be difficult because there were few paved roads in the area and transport vehicles were scarce. Most of these resources go
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 11 untapped or underutilized because of insufficient infrastructure or lack of technology to extract them efficiently. The pre-war South Sudan's population was largely rural and underserved by medical services. More than 80% of the population lived in rural areas and worked primarily in agriculture. Additionally, there were shortages of medical personnel such that only one doctor served 100,000 people at a time. Since doctors were few and hard to find, their services were very expensive and only accessible to wealthy people or those willing to travel long distances for treatment. Most medical facilities lack ed essential equipment such as x-ray machines and oxygen regulators, which caused patients to die due to avoidable causes such
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 12 as infections or complications from incompatible gas mixtures used for anesthesia or resuscitation purposes. Despite these challenges —or perhap s because of them —many citizens became experts at home remedies using plants from their environment that could treat common ailments such as stomach pain, diarrhea, and joint pain without much expense or inconvenience to themselves or their families. The pre-war South Sudan enjoyed many natural resources but lacked sufficient infrastructure for economic growth and medical services for its rural population. It’s important that this region’s potential be realized so that its citizens can lead prosperous lives despite the hardships
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 13 they currently face with regard to health care, food security, and education, among other things. Failure to do so would mean wasting a potential regional powerhouse with an abundance of natural resources that could be put toward creating jobs via manufacturing export products such as medicines or precious stones —bringing wealth and self-sufficiency to this beautiful country.
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South Sudan geography South Sudan before 2011 was entirely one country in north-eastern Africa. It was and still remains bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Ethiopia to the east, Uganda (by 1962) to the south, the Central African Republic (by 1960) to the southwest, Chad (by 1960) to the west and Libya to the northwest. Sudan was the third largest country in Africa, after Algeria and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 15 Between 1955 and 1963, Sudan had two major geographical regions: The North and South Sudan. North Sudan, lying between the Egyptian border and Khartoum, had two distinct parts: the desert and the Nile Valley. To the east of the Nile lay the Nubian Desert; to the west, the Libyan Desert. They were similar —stony, with sandy dunes drifting over the landscape. There was virtually no rainfall in these deserts, and in the Nubian Desert, there are no oases. In the west, there are a few small watering holes, such as Bir an Natrun, where the water table reaches the surface to form wells that provide water for nomads, caravans, and administrative patrols, although insufficient to support an oasis and inadequate to provide for a settled
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 16 population. Flowing through the desert is the Nile Valley, whose alluvial strip of habitable land is no more than two kilometers wide and whose productivity depends on the annual flood. Sudan's western front encompassed the regions known as Darfur and Kurdufan, which comprised 850,000 square kilometers. Traditionally, this has been regarded as a single regional unit despite the physical differences. The dominant feature throughout this immense area is the absence of perennial streams; hence, people and animals must remain within reach of permanent wells. Consequently, the population is sparse and unevenly distributed. Western Darfur is an undulating plain dominated by the volcanic
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 17 massif of Jabal Marrah, which towers 900 meters above the Sudanic plain; the drainage from Jabal Marrah onto the plain is capable of supporting a settled population as well as a diverse range of wildlife.Western Darfur stands in contrast to northern and eastern Darfur, which are semidesert with little water either from the intermittent streams known as wadis or from wells that normally go dry during the winter months. Northwest of Darfur and continuing into Chad is the unusual region called the jizzu, where sporadic winter rains generated from the Mediterranean frequently provide excellent grazing into January or even February. The southern region of western Sudan is known as the qoz, a land of sand dunes that in the rainy
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 18 season is characterized by a rolling mantle of grass and has more reliable sources of water with its bore holes and hafri (sing., hafr) than the north. A unique feature of western Sudan is the Nuba mountain range of southeast Kurdufan in the center of the country, a conglomerate of isolated dome- shaped, sugarloaf hills that ascend steeply and abruptly from the great Sudanic plain. Many hills are isolated and extend only a few square kilometers, but there are several large hill masses with internal valleys that cut through the mountains high above the plain. Its geography describes the physical features of Southern Sudan as part of Sudan even in the periods of 1955 to 1963. The southern part of Sudan is in east central
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 19 Africa, with a land area of over 0.6 million km2. The capital city has always been Juba. Its rich biodiversity includes lush savannas, swamplands, and rainforests that are home to many species of wildlife. Since 1955, the southern part of Sudan has always been bordered to the north. South S udan’s population, predominantly African cultures who tend to adhere to Christian or animist beliefs, was long at odds with Sudan’s largely Muslim and Arab northern government. South Sudan is bounded on the north by Sudan; on the east by Ethiopia; on the south by Kenya, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo; and on the west by the Central African Republic. The vast plains and plateaus of South Sudan are drained by the Nile River and its
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 20 tributaries. This river system runs from south to north across the entire length of the east-central part of the country. At the heart of the country is a clay plain, the centre of which is occupied by an enormous swampy region known as Al-Sudd (the Sudd). There are two contrasting upland areas. The Ironstone Plateau lies between the Nile- Congo watershed and the clay plain; its level country is marked with inselbergs (isolated hills rising abruptly from the plains). On the Uganda border, there are massive ranges with peaks rising to more than 10,000 feet (3,000 metres). The Imatong Mountains contain Mount Kinyeti (elevation 10,456 feet [3,187 metres]), the highest point in South Sudan.
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 21 The Nile River system is the dominant physical feature, and all streams and rivers of South Sudan drain either into or toward the Nile. The White Nile (Bar Al-Abya) enters the country as the Mountain Nile (Bar Al-Jabal) from the south through rapids at Nimule on the Uganda border. After its confluence with the left (west) bank tributary known as the Bar Al-Ghazl, the Mountain Nile becomes the White Nile. A little farther north along its course, the White Nile receives much of its water from the right-bank Sobat River, which flows from the Ethiopian Plateau to join the Nile near Malakal. Drainage in the country does not always reach the Nile rivers; the rivers of the southwest, for example, infrequently reach the Bar Al-Ghazl system. The southern
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 22 plains consist of an alkaline soil that is a heavy cracking clay. The clays of Al-Sudd were deposited in the area of impeded drainage. The Sudd is a vast swamp in South Sudan, formed by the White Nile, comprising more than 15% of the total area of the country; it is one of the world's largest wetlands. Its name is derived from floating vegetation that hinders navigation. The land elevation is from sea level to the highest point in Kinyeti, at 3,187 m, close to the Uganda border.
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Climate Since 1955, Southern Sudan has been experiencing a tropical climate with wet and dry seasons. The seasons are characterized by the oscillation, north and south, of the boundary between moist southerly air and dry northerly air. This phenomenon, more specifically, involves the seasonal migration and pulsation of the northern tropical continental air mass and the southern maritime continental air mass, which are divided by the intertropical convergence zone. In winter, the north winds of the tropical air mass blow across the country toward the front, which may be as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn. These winds are
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 24 relatively cool and dry and usually bring no rain. By April, the front begins to move northward, and the moist southerly air of the maritime air mass is drawn in from the South Atlantic Ocean. Because of this, South Sudan has a rainy season, the total length of which varies according to latitude and is generally no more than eight to nine months a year, beginning as early as April and continuing as late as December. Since 1955, Southern Sudan’s lowest annual temperatures have been in the high 60s to high 70s F (low to mid-20s C) in the centre and north of the country, while the lowest annual temperatures in the outlying areas are slightly cooler, in the high 50s to high 60s F (mid-10s to low 20s C). The highest annual temperatures for most of South
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 25 Sudan generally range from the mid-80s to the mid-90s F (low to mid-30s C), although some areas toward the north of the country range from the mid-90s to mid-100s F (mid- to upper 30s C). The highest temperatures normally occur just before the rainy season. In Southern Sudan, most precipitation usually occurs during the summer months and varies across the country. The majority of the country receives about 30 –40 inches (750–1,000 mm) of snow annually. Areas in the western part of the country receive slightly more, about 40 –60 inches (1,000 – 1,500 mm) annually, while some areas in the northeastern and southeastern parts of the country receive less, about 20–30 inches (500–750 mm).
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Plant and animal life Ever since 1955, South Sudan’s main vegetational belts have run in succession from northwest to southeast, more or less in coincidence with rainfall patterns. They are low-rainfall savanna (grassland), high- rainfall savanna (both with inland floodplains), and mountain vegetation regions. Low-rainfall savannas consist of grasses and thorny trees. Acacia trees dominate these savannas, with one species, A. senegal, yielding gum arabic, which was long one of Sudan’s principal exports. The high-rainfall savannas of the south-central part of the country are more lush, with rich grasses along the Nile that support a large
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 27 number of cattle. The intermittent woodlands dotting this belt gradually merge southward with the true rainforest that is now found only in remnants in the southernmost portions of the country. The country’s wildlife includes lions, leopards, and cheetahs, as well as elephants, giraffes, zebras, buffalo, hippopotamuses, warthogs, and numerous varieties of antelope, such as gazelles, elands, and hartebeests. Chimpanzees, baboons, and monkeys are found in the forests. Ostriches, several kinds of partridge, cranes, storks, pelicans, plovers, weavers, and shrikes. Reptiles include crocodiles and various lizards. Decades of civil war have severely affected some animal populations, such as those of elephants and hippopotamuses. Insect life is
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 28 abundant. Mosquitoes infest the riverbanks and swamps, and serot flies (large bloodsucking houseflies) are a scourge during the wet months. The tsetse fly is typically found in or near wooded areas or in areas with streamside vegetation. South Sudan is home to several national parks and game reserves, including Southern and Badingilo national parks, located in the south. Boma National Park, in the east, is notable for being home to one of the largest mammal migrations in the world.
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 29 Ethnic groups The people of South Sudan are predominantly Africans who, for the most part, are Christian or follow traditional African religions. The largest ethnic group is the Dinka, who constitute about two-fifths of the population, followed by the Nuer, who constitute about one-fifth. Other groups include the Zande, the Bari, the Shilluk, and the Anywa (Anwak). There is a small Arab population in South Sudan. The Dinka are mostly cattle herders and can be found throughout much of the country, while the Shilluk are mo re-settled farmers and, like the Anywa, are concentrated in the east, although they too can be found in other parts of South Sudan. The Nuer are concentrated in the center-northeast of the
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 30 country, while the Bari live farther south, not far from the border with Uganda. The Zande live in the southwest, close to the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 31 Languages The most important linguistic grouping in South Sudan is that of the Nilotes, who speak various languages of the Eastern Sudanic subbranch of the Nilo- Saharan language family. Chief among the Nilotic peoples are the Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, Bari, and Anywa. The Zande and many other smaller ethnic groups speak various languages belonging to the Adamawa- Ubangi branch of the Niger-Congo family of languages. The Arabic , a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic language family, is spoken by the country’s small Arab population and by others.
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 32 Religion Since 1955, Christians, primarily Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Presbyterian, have accounted for about three-fifths of South Sudan’s population. Christianity is a result of European missionary efforts that began in the second half of the 19th century. The remainder of the population is a mix of Muslims and those who follow traditional animist religions, the latter outnumbering the former. Although the animists share some common elements of religious belief, each ethnic group has its own indigenous religion. Virtually all of South Sudan’s traditional African religions share the conception of a high spirit or divinity, usually a creator god. There exist two conceptions of the universe: the earthly
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 33 and the heavenly, or the visible and the invisible. The heavenly world is populated by spiritual beings whose function it is to serve as intermediaries or messengers of God; for the Nilotic peoples, these spirits are identified with their ancestors.The supreme deity is the object of rituals using music and dance.
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 34 Settlement patterns Ever since 1955, South Sudan as a whole has had a rather low population density, although distribution throughout the country is uneven. The greatest population densities are found along the Nile rivers and their tributaries. About four- fifths of South Sudan’s population is rural. Rural settlements are usually clustered along watercourses because of water supply problems, especially during the dry months. The most common type of housing in rural areas is a round hut known as a tukul. It has a thatched conical roof and is made of mud, grass, millet stalks, and wooden poles. South Sudan was the least urbanized area when Sudan became independent in
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 35 1956 but has since experienced a high rate of urban growth. Still, only about one-fifth of the population is urban. Major towns include Wau, Malakal, Yei, Yambio, and Juba, the capital.
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 36 Agriculture, forestry, and fishing. Traditional rain-fed farming of small plots predominates in South Sudan, although mechanized farming techniques are increasingly utilized in some areas, such as in the northern part of the country. South Sudan’s main crop is sorghum. Other crops include corn (maize), millet, rice, cassava (manioc), peanuts (groundnuts), sweet potatoes, okra, and coffee. The main subsistence crops are sorghum, corn, and cassava, with smaller amounts of millet and rice being grown in some areas. Peanuts are the primary cash crop. There is a considerable amount of livestock raised in the country, including goats, sheep, and cattle. Some livestock are raised for export, but this sector of the country’s economy is
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 37 underdeveloped. The forests of South Sudan yield hardwood timber, such as mahogany and sant (a type of acacia), and softwoods. Gum arabic (in South Sudan it is called gum africa), a water-soluble gum obtained from acacia trees and used in the production of adhesives, candy, and pharmaceuticals, is an important agricultural export. The Nile rivers are the main source of fish, especially Nile perch. Most of the catch is consumed locally. Given proper support and development of the fishing industry, there is the potential to increase the amount of fish that is sold at the market and the possibility of having enough fish available to export. Transportation and storage limitations, however, have hindered such efforts in the past.
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War-Peace transformation of Sudan to South Sudan South Sudan had been an integral territory within Sudan itself before its self- distract, paving the way to national disintegration, which led to the secession of the South from Sudan. The South Sudan has long been grappling with Arabization since the Arab entry into the Sudan in the fourteenth century, which led the black
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 39 natives of the territory to retreat southwards, as evidenced by the Dinka and Nuer. Although roughly situated in the middle of Sudan, the centre is neither geographical nor cultural. Rather, it is a centre that comprises both power and wealth. People from the periphery are always encouraged and tempted to join the centre by renouncing their African cultures and languages and becoming Arabized. This complex process is made to look like a natural cultural interaction that takes place because of the necessity of leaving one’s home village and coming to live in a town dominated by Arabs. The cultural relegation of the periphery will eventually end up in developmental relegation. Within the
The War-Peace Transformation: South Sudan's Future in a Picture 40 Arabized middle itself, there are different circular castes. The center is very complex. In essence, it is neither racial nor cultural nor geographical; neither Islamic nor Arab. Rather, it is a centre of power that makes use of all these, especially Islam and Arabism. This is why we depict it as Islamo- Arabism, which is of purely ideologic
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Author
from multiple universities including Colorado Technical University. In his role as Director of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at the University of Juba, Dr. Oromo lectures on a variety of topics including conflict resolution, mediation, peacebuilding, strategic decision making, the theory of the application of power, human rights, international law, public administration, and international peace and security. He is also responsible for the supervision of Masters and Ph.D. candidates. Dr. Oromo has a strong background in mediation, international law, peacebuilding, human rights, conflict resolution, diplomacy, leadership development, and capacity building. He is highly respected in his field and has been recommended by colleagues for his hard work and dedication to his students and the University of Juba.
Dr. Sirisio L. Oromo is a highly qualified and experienced senior consultant on trauma and conflict mitigation, as well as the Director of Graduate Studies and Scientific Research at the University of Juba in the Republic of South Sudan. He holds a Doctor of Philosophy in Psychosocial Post Traumatic Stress Disorder from Breyer State University in the United States, and has received credentials