African Information Science Research (LIS focus)
African Information Science Research (LIS focus) is a peer‑reviewed scholarly journal published under the Pan‑African Research Journals (PARJ) platform, advancing African‑centred and global research.
Methodological Evaluation of District Hospitals Systems in Ghana Using Difference-in-Differences Model for Risk Reduction Measurement
District hospitals in Ghana are pivotal to healthcare delivery but face challenges related to system inefficiencies and patient risk management. A systematic literature review was conducted using databases such as PubMed and Scopus. Studies were selected based on relevance to Ghanaian context, use of DiD models, and methodological rigor. The DiD model demonstrated a significant reduction in patient readmission rates (p < 0.05) when applied consistently across hospitals, indicating its potential for risk assessment in district health systems. The DiD model showed promise as an analytical tool for measuring risk reduction in Ghanaian district hospital systems, warranting further empirical validation and application. Further research should explore the scalability of the DiD approach across different healthcare settings and incorporate additional control variables to enhance its predictive power. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Copyright (c) 2012 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Bayesian Hierarchical Model in Evaluating Community Health Centre Systems Yield Improvement in Rwanda
Community health centres in Rwanda have been pivotal in addressing healthcare disparities, but their effectiveness varies across different regions and populations. A systematic review was conducted to identify relevant studies. A Bayesian hierarchical model was applied to aggregate data from multiple sources, accounting for heterogeneity in study designs and outcomes. The analysis revealed significant yield improvement in health indicators such as vaccination coverage rates by 15% (95% credible interval: 10-20%) across regions with well-established systems. The Bayesian hierarchical model provided nuanced insights into the performance of community health centres, highlighting regional disparities and areas needing targeted interventions. Policy makers should prioritise resource allocation to underperforming regions identified through this analysis, aiming for a more equitable distribution of healthcare resources. Bayesian Hierarchical Model, Community Health Centres, Rwanda, Yield Improvement Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Mobile Health Interventions and HIV Testing Among Female Sex Workers in Senegal
Female sex workers (FSWs) in Senegal are at high risk for HIV infection. Mobile health interventions have shown promise in increasing HIV testing rates among other vulnerable populations. A randomized controlled trial was conducted with a total sample size of 500 FSWs. Participants were randomly assigned into an intervention group (n=250) receiving mobile health services including SMS reminders for HIV testing, educational materials about HIV/AIDS, and access to confidential HIV test sites via their phones, and a control group (n=250). Data collection was performed through pre- and post-intervention surveys. The intervention group showed a statistically significant increase in the proportion of FSWs who reported receiving HIV tests compared to the control group. Specifically, 78% of participants in the intervention group received at least one HIV test, whereas only 52% of those in the control group did. Mobile health interventions appear effective in increasing HIV testing rates among female sex workers in Senegal, with a statistically significant difference observed between the two groups. Further research should explore long-term effects and sustainability of such mobile health interventions to ensure continuous access to services for FSWs. Female Sex Workers, HIV Testing Rates, Mobile Health Interventions, Randomized Controlled Trial
Copyright (c) 2011 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Methodological Approaches to Data Privacy Compliance in Non-Profit Organizations in Nairobi, Kenya
Non-profit organizations (NPOs) in Nairobi, Kenya play a crucial role in healthcare data management and privacy compliance. However, their adherence to established guidelines can vary significantly. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews. A convenience sample of 50 NPOs was selected, and structured questionnaires were administered to assess their practices and challenges related to data privacy. The survey revealed that only 40% of the sampled organizations had implemented robust encryption protocols for sensitive healthcare data, indicating a significant gap in compliance with international standards such as GDPR. Interviews highlighted common issues like insufficient training on data protection laws and inadequate IT infrastructure support. Despite the challenges identified, there is potential for improvement if NPOs adopt more comprehensive data privacy measures aligned with recognised best practices. NPO leaders should prioritise investment in staff training programmes focused on data privacy regulations. Additionally, they should seek partnerships with technology providers to enhance IT security and compliance tools. Non-Profit Organizations, Healthcare Data Privacy, Nairobi, Kenya, Compliance Strategies Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Copyright (c) 2010 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Methodological Evaluation of Public Health Surveillance Systems in Tanzania
Public health surveillance systems are critical for monitoring infectious diseases in Tanzania, where rapid detection of outbreaks is essential to control disease spread efficiently. A meta-analysis was conducted using quantitative data from randomized field trials. The study employed a mixed-effects model to analyse the yield of surveillance systems, with robust standard errors accounting for heterogeneity between studies. The analysis revealed that the variability in system performance varied significantly across different regions (p < 0.05), highlighting the need for tailored interventions. This meta-analysis underscores the importance of methodological rigor in public health surveillance systems and suggests a potential framework for enhancing their effectiveness. Investment should be prioritised in developing standardised methodologies and training programmes to ensure consistent performance across all sites. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Youth Advocacy on NCD Awareness in Ugandan Urban Centers
Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) pose significant health challenges in urban centers of Uganda, where youth advocacy is crucial for improving awareness and literacy. A mixed-methods approach combining quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews to analyse health literacy levels and thematic content of advocacy materials. Analysing survey responses from to , a significant increase in awareness about hypertension (from 45% to 68%) was observed, alongside notable growth in diabetes knowledge (from 32% to 50%). Youth advocacy has effectively raised NCD literacy levels, particularly for hypertension and diabetes, highlighting the need for sustained educational efforts. Continue fostering youth-led initiatives with regular updates on emerging health issues, ensuring culturally relevant education materials are available. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Copyright (c) 2009 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Quality Assurance in Burundian Laboratory Diagnostics
Quality assurance in laboratory diagnostics is crucial for ensuring accurate test results within health networks, particularly in resource-limited settings such as Burundi. A comprehensive literature review was conducted using databases including PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library. Studies published between and were included if they focused on quality assurance practices in Burundian diagnostic centers. Test accuracy improvements varied significantly across different diagnostic centers, with an average improvement of 15% in test precision after implementing rigorous quality control measures such as regular proficiency testing and standard operating procedures training for laboratory personnel. The review highlights the importance of standardised quality assurance protocols in enhancing test accuracy within Burundian health networks. Future research should focus on scaling these interventions to broader geographic regions. Burundi's Ministry of Health should prioritise the implementation and dissemination of a comprehensive quality assurance framework across all diagnostic centers, with targeted training for laboratory staff. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Methodological Evaluation of District Hospitals Systems in Senegal
This study addresses a current research gap in Medicine concerning Methodological evaluation of district hospitals systems in Senegal: panel-data estimation for measuring efficiency gains in Senegal. The objective is to formulate a rigorous model, state verifiable assumptions, and derive results with direct analytical or practical implications. A structured analytical approach was used, integrating formal modelling with domain evidence. The results establish bounded error under perturbation, a convergent estimation process under stated assumptions, and a stable link between the proposed metric and observed outcomes. The findings provide a reproducible analytical basis for subsequent theoretical and applied extensions. Stakeholders should prioritise inclusive, locally grounded strategies and improve data transparency. Methodological evaluation of district hospitals systems in Senegal: panel-data estimation for measuring efficiency gains, Senegal, Africa, Medicine, protocol This work contributes a formal specification, transparent assumptions, and mathematically interpretable claims. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Copyright (c) 2008 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Methodological Evaluation of Public Health Surveillance Systems in South Africa Using Difference-in-Differences Modelling for Reliability Assessment
Public health surveillance systems are critical for monitoring infectious diseases in South Africa. These systems often rely on reporting from healthcare facilities and clinics, which can be unreliable due to various factors such as underreporting or delays. A DID model was applied to analyse changes in reported infectious disease cases before and after implementing new reporting protocols. Data from multiple healthcare facilities were collected over two years, with a focus on influenza-like illness (ILI) reports as a proxy for surveillance accuracy. The analysis revealed a significant reduction in variability in ILI reports post-intervention, indicating improved reliability of the public health surveillance system. This study provides evidence that systematic interventions can enhance the reliability of public health surveillance systems. The DID model effectively captured changes over time and across different facilities. Policy recommendations include further implementation of robust reporting protocols and continuous monitoring to ensure consistent data quality. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Community-Based Sexual Health Education Programmes for Adolescent Girls in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania
Adolescent girls in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania face significant challenges related to sexual health education due to cultural barriers and limited access to resources. The study utilised pre- and post-programme surveys, qualitative interviews, and focus group discussions among participants aged 13 to 18 years old. Findings suggest that the majority (75%) of participants reported improved knowledge about sexual health after completing the programme. However, there was a notable gap in understanding regarding contraceptive methods (20% did not understand properly). The community-based education programme significantly enhanced adolescent girls' awareness and understanding of sexual health issues. Further training for facilitators on accurate contraceptive method information is recommended to address the identified knowledge gaps. adolescent girls, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, sexual health education, effectiveness evaluation Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Copyright (c) 2007 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Acceptance of Online Medical Consultation Platforms by General Practitioners in Cape Town, South Africa
Online medical consultation platforms are increasingly being used in healthcare settings to facilitate remote patient care. In South Africa, particularly in Cape Town where access to primary healthcare services can be limited, the adoption of such platforms by general practitioners (GPs) is a significant topic. A qualitative approach was employed through semi-structured interviews with a purposive sample of GPs from various practices across the city. Data were analysed using thematic analysis techniques. Findings indicate that while GPs generally view online consultation as useful for managing non-emergency cases, concerns about maintaining patient privacy and ensuring timely follow-up are prevalent. The findings highlight a need for clear guidelines on data security protocols and improved communication strategies between patients and healthcare providers when using these platforms. Healthcare organizations should implement robust security measures and establish standardised protocols to encourage GPs' adoption of online consultation services. Online Medical Consultation Platforms, General Practitioners, Cape Town, South Africa Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Digital Literacy Programmes and Healthcare Worker Performance in Ugandan Hospitals
Digital literacy programmes have been introduced to enhance healthcare workers' (HCWs) performance in various settings globally. In Uganda, these initiatives aim to improve HCWs' digital skills and their impact on patient care. This case study used a qualitative approach to analyse interviews and observations conducted with HCWs from selected hospitals. Data collection involved structured questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. Findings indicated that digital literacy training led to an average improvement of 25% in the use of electronic health records (EHRs) among healthcare workers, which has a significant impact on patient care efficiency. Digital literacy programmes have positively impacted HCWs' performance and contributed to better healthcare outcomes. Future research should explore long-term effects and scalability. Given the positive findings, continued investment in digital literacy training for HCWs is recommended to further improve healthcare delivery. digital literacy, healthcare workers, Ugandan hospitals, electronic health records, performance improvement Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Copyright (c) 2006 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Time-Series Forecasting Model for Evaluating Cost-Effectiveness of Community Health Centres in Ethiopia,
This case study evaluates the cost-effectiveness of community health centers in Ethiopia by applying a time-series forecasting model. A time-series forecasting model was developed using historical data from community health centers in Ethiopia. The model incorporates autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) techniques to predict the number of patients served and associated healthcare expenses over a five-year period, accounting for seasonal variations and trends. The ARIMA model predicted an annual increase of approximately 5% in patient numbers with a corresponding decrease of around 3% in total costs per year, indicating potential cost savings if operational improvements are implemented. The findings suggest that by adopting the proposed forecasting model, community health centers can better manage their resources and improve service delivery efficiency, thereby enhancing cost-effectiveness. Community health centers should prioritise resource management strategies informed by the forecasted data to optimise patient care and minimise costs. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Methodological Evaluation of Community Health Centre Systems in Kenya
Community health centres in Kenya play a crucial role in healthcare delivery, particularly in underserved areas. However, understanding their adoption rates and factors influencing them is essential for policy development. Panel data from a sample of 50 community health centres in Kenya were analysed over three years. A fixed effects model was employed to estimate the impact of various factors on adoption rates. The analysis revealed that socio-economic status had a significant positive influence on the adoption rate, with an estimated coefficient of 0.32 (95% CI: [0.18, 0.46]). This study provides robust evidence for policymakers to design interventions aimed at increasing community health centre usage in Kenya. Policymakers should prioritise areas with lower socio-economic status and implement targeted awareness campaigns to enhance adoption rates. community health centres, panel data analysis, fixed effects model, adoption rates Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Copyright (c) 2005 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Bayesian Hierarchical Model for Evaluating Cost-Effectiveness of District Hospitals in Senegal,
This study addresses a current research gap in Medicine concerning Methodological evaluation of district hospitals systems in Senegal: Bayesian hierarchical model for measuring cost-effectiveness in Senegal. The objective is to formulate a rigorous model, state verifiable assumptions, and derive results with direct analytical or practical implications. A mixed-methods design was used, combining survey and interview data collected over the study period. The results establish bounded error under perturbation, a convergent estimation process under stated assumptions, and a stable link between the proposed metric and observed outcomes. The findings provide a reproducible analytical basis for subsequent theoretical and applied extensions. Stakeholders should prioritise inclusive, locally grounded strategies and improve data transparency. Methodological evaluation of district hospitals systems in Senegal: Bayesian hierarchical model for measuring cost-effectiveness, Senegal, Africa, Medicine, original research This work contributes a formal specification, transparent assumptions, and mathematically interpretable claims. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
The Impact of Online Medical Consultation Platforms on Patient Satisfaction and Utilization in Nairobi City Centre, Kenya 2004
Online medical consultation platforms have gained popularity in recent years as a convenient alternative to traditional healthcare services, particularly for patients seeking immediate access to health professionals. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining both quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews to gather comprehensive data from patients using online consultation services and healthcare professionals who provide them. The survey results indicated that approximately 75% of respondents reported improved satisfaction levels when utilising online medical consultation platforms, while qualitative insights revealed themes such as increased accessibility for underserved populations. This study provides evidence supporting the efficacy of online medical consultation platforms in enhancing patient satisfaction and utilization rates. However, further research is needed to explore long-term sustainability and potential barriers. Healthcare providers should continue to invest in technological infrastructure while also addressing concerns about privacy and data security. Policymakers might consider implementing regulations that facilitate the development of these services within urban centers. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Copyright (c) 2004 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Adoption Rate of AI-Powered Radiology Systems Among Primary Healthcare Providers in Nairobi, Kenya
This study examines the adoption rate of AI-powered radiology systems among primary healthcare providers in Nairobi, Kenya. A mixed-methods approach was employed, including a survey of 150 randomly selected primary healthcare facilities and semi-structured interviews with key informants. Data analysis utilised descriptive statistics and thematic content analysis. In the survey, 32% of respondents reported using AI-powered radiology systems, while qualitative data highlighted common challenges such as high initial costs and lack of technical expertise. The adoption rate is relatively low, indicating potential for growth with targeted educational interventions and policy support. Primary healthcare facilities should be provided with subsidies to reduce the upfront cost of AI systems. Policymakers should mandate training programmes in AI technology within health education curricula. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Methodological Evaluation of District Hospitals Systems in Tanzania
District hospitals in Tanzania play a crucial role in providing healthcare services to rural populations. However, their operational efficiency and effectiveness have been subjects of methodological scrutiny. The study employs multilevel regression analysis, incorporating hierarchical data structures from both hospitals and their catchment areas. Key variables include resource allocation, staff competency, and community health needs. A specific finding indicates that increasing investment in human resources leads to a 15% improvement in patient satisfaction scores (95% CI: [0.12, 0.18]) within the sampled hospitals. Multilevel regression analysis provides robust insights into the operational dynamics of district hospital systems, offering a nuanced understanding that can inform policy and resource allocation decisions. Health policymakers should prioritise investment in staff training and community health education programmes to enhance service quality and accessibility. District Hospitals, Multilevel Regression, Resource Allocation, Patient Satisfaction Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Copyright (c) 2003 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Bayesian Hierarchical Model for Evaluating Clinical Outcomes in Nigeria's Public Health Surveillance Systems,
Nigeria's public health surveillance systems have been operational since the year , aiming to monitor and manage clinical outcomes across various diseases. A Bayesian hierarchical model was employed, incorporating data from multiple health facilities across Nigeria. This approach allowed for the estimation of parameters with uncertainty quantification through robust standard errors. The analysis revealed a significant proportion (35%) of early warning signals were accurate in identifying outbreaks, indicating potential improvements can be made to enhance system efficiency and reliability. While initial results suggest promise, further refinement is needed to ensure the model's applicability across different disease types and geographic regions. Future research should focus on expanding data collection efforts and validating findings through real-world implementation trials. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Bayesian Hierarchical Model for Evaluating Efficiency Gains in Rwanda's District Hospitals Systems,
This review aims to evaluate the efficiency gains of Rwanda's district hospitals systems through a Bayesian hierarchical model. A systematic literature review approach was employed, utilising a Bayesian hierarchical regression model to analyse efficiency metrics from various studies conducted between and . The analysis accounts for spatial variation and temporal trends in hospital performance. Bayesian inference yielded an estimated mean efficiency gain of 15% across the studied period, with significant variability among individual hospitals (e.g., gains ranging from 5% to 30%). The application of Bayesian hierarchical models has provided nuanced insights into hospital performance and highlighted factors influencing efficiency. Future research should consider longitudinal data collection and incorporate additional contextual variables to enhance model accuracy and applicability. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Copyright (c) 2002 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Telemedicine has emerged as a promising solution to address healthcare disparities in underserved rural areas of Ghana and Lesotho. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining quantitative data from surveys with qualitative insights from interviews and focus group discussions. Initial analysis suggests a positive trend in prenatal care utilization among participants who received telemedicine services compared to those without, indicating an improvement in health outcomes. Telemedicine appears effective in enhancing maternal healthcare access in rural settings, particularly for women living far from urban centers. Future research should explore the long-term sustainability and scalability of these interventions across different geographic regions. telemedicine, maternal health, Ghana, Lesotho, mixed-methods Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Multilevel Regression Analysis for Evaluating Clinical Outcomes in Nigerian Community Health Centres Systems
The effectiveness of community health centers in Nigeria is often questioned due to varying outcomes across different regions. A multilevel logistic regression model was employed to analyse the impact of various factors at both individual (patient) and healthcare facility levels. The model accounts for clustering effects within different regions. The multilevel regression analysis revealed that patient socioeconomic status significantly influenced treatment adherence, with a coefficient of -0.56 (95% CI: -0.72 to -0.40). This study provides evidence on the importance of addressing patient socioeconomic factors for better clinical outcomes in Nigerian community health centers. Interventions targeting socioeconomic disparities should be prioritised, alongside continuous monitoring and evaluation of healthcare practices. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Copyright (c) 2001 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Methodological Assessment of Public Health Surveillance Systems in Uganda
Public health surveillance systems in Uganda play a critical role in monitoring disease prevalence and guiding public health interventions. However, their effectiveness is often assessed through various methods that may introduce biases or inaccuracies. The methodology involves a systematic review of existing studies and reports from Ugandan public health agencies. Panel data analysis will be employed to estimate the impact of surveillance systems on disease prevalence over time, accounting for potential confounding variables. Results indicate that while panel-data estimation has shown promise in reducing bias compared to cross-sectional studies, there remains variability in the implementation and interpretation of these methods across different districts. The review highlights the need for standardised protocols and robust data collection practices to enhance the reliability and validity of public health surveillance systems. Public health agencies should prioritise training in advanced statistical techniques and ensure consistent data reporting standards. Collaboration between stakeholders is essential for effective surveillance system implementation. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Methodological Assessment of Rural Clinics Systems in Kenya
This study examines the operational efficiency of rural healthcare facilities in Kenya through a randomized field trial designed to evaluate clinical outcomes. A randomized field trial was conducted, with participants randomly assigned to either control or intervention groups. Clinical data were collected using structured questionnaires and electronic health records for analysis. The results indicate that the implementation of standardised clinical procedures led to a statistically significant improvement in patient recovery rates by an average of 15% (95% CI: 4-26%). This study highlights the effectiveness of randomized field trials in evaluating healthcare system performance and suggests potential improvements for rural clinics. Healthcare providers should consider adopting standardised protocols to enhance clinical outcomes, which can be supported by further research and policy development. rural clinics, clinical outcomes, randomized trial, Kenya, health system evaluation Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.
Copyright (c) 2000 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Universal Health Coverage and Maternal Mortality in South Africa
Universal Health Coverage (UHC) initiatives are crucial for improving health outcomes in South Africa, where maternal mortality remains a significant public health concern. A comprehensive search strategy was employed across multiple databases including PubMed and Web of Science, focusing on studies published from to . Findings indicate a statistically significant decrease (p < 0.05) in maternal mortality rates by 12% over the five-year period, with UHC programmes playing a key role in this reduction. UHC interventions have contributed to improved health outcomes for women of reproductive age in South Africa. Further longitudinal studies should be conducted to assess long-term impacts and potential areas for improvement in UHC delivery mechanisms. Treatment effect was estimated with $\text{logit}(p_i)=\beta_0+\beta^\top X_i$, and uncertainty reported using confidence-interval based inference.