The IGAD Security Sector Programme: Mandate, Implementation, and Effectiveness
AFRICAN BUREAUCRACY STUDIES (PUBLIC ADMIN/POLITICAL
Vol. 1 | No. 1 | 2024 | 10.5281/zenodo.19505559
The IGAD Security Sector Programme
Mandate, Implementation, and Effectiveness
Abraham Kuol Nyuon1,2,3
Associate Professor of Politics, Peace, and Security • Principal, Graduate College, University of Juba • SUSI
Scholar on U.S. Foreign Policy
Correspondence: nyuonabraham@gmail.com
Received: 15 November 2023 | Accepted: 26 January 2024 | Published: 20 March 2024 | DOI:
10.5281/zenodo.19505559
ABSTRACT
This article develops a novel theoretical framework to analyse the mandate, implementation, and effectiveness of
the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) Security Sector Programme (ISSP) in non-member
states, with a specific focus on Madagascar. It critiques the limitations of existing regional security complex and
security sector reform theories when applied to such hybrid engagements.
The proposed framework synthesises concepts of extra-regional actorness, transnational bureaucratic authority, and
adaptive hybridisation to explain the programme's operational dynamics and contested outcomes. The analysis
concludes by outlining the framework's implications for understanding regional organisations' roles in complex
African security landscapes and its practical utility for policymakers.
Keywords: IGAD Security Sector Programme, Regional Security Governance, Extra-Regional Actorness, Transnational Bureaucratic
Authority, Security Sector Reform, Hybrid Security Orders, Madagascar, African Regional Organisations
Article Highlights Theoretical Contribution
• First theoretical analysis of IGAD's Security Sector Programme Synthesizes concepts of extra-regional actorness, transnational
in non-member states bureaucratic authority, and adaptive hybridisation to explain
• Develops novel framework combining extra-regional actorness regional organisations' security interventions.
and transnational authority
This article advances theoretical understanding of African regional security
• Examines implementation challenges in Madagascar's complex governance through empirical analysis.
security landscape
• Offers practical insights for policymakers on external security
sector reform
an initiative traditionally focused on the Horn of
Introduction
Africa(Akbari et al., 2022). This paradoxical
The security landscape of Madagascar, situation—where a regional economic
characterised by persistent political instability, community (REC) operates a substantive security
endemic piracy, and transnational organised programme in a non-member state—forms the
crime, presents a complex governance challenge central puzzle of this article(Amuhaya, 2024).
that extends beyond its national borders(Akamavi The research problem is twofold: first, to
et al., 2022)(Akamavi et al., 2022). While not a understand how and why IGAD, an organisation
member of the Intergovernmental Authority on with a defined regional membership, has
Development (IGAD), Madagascar has become a extended its security sector reform (SSR)
significant site of engagement for the mandate to Madagascar; and second, to assess the
organisation’s Security Sector Programme (ISSP), theoretical implications of this extra-regional
Abraham Kuol Nyuon THE IGAD SECURITY SECTOR 1(1): 40-59 (2024)
PROGRAMME:
action for our comprehension of African security these is Buzan and Wæver’s Regional Security
governance. Existing literature on regionalism in Complex Theory (RSCT), which posits that
Africa, while robust, often remains constrained security dynamics are primarily shaped by
by membership-based paradigms, failing to geographically proximate states whose security
adequately account for such hybrid and fluid perceptions are interdependent. While RSCT
engagements(Asaka & Oluoko-Odingo, 2022). usefully frames the Horn of Africa as a distinct
This article’s central aim is therefore to develop a complex, it struggles to account for the agency of
new analytical framework capable of dissecting a regional organisation like IGAD acting beyond
the mandate, implementation, and effectiveness its recognised geographical bounds, treating such
of the IGAD Security Sector Programme in action as an anomaly rather than a constitutive
Madagascar, moving beyond conventional state- feature of contemporary security governance.
centric and membership-bound models.
Concurrently, the extensive literature on
To this end, the argument proceeds by first Security Sector Reform (SSR) provides another
critiquing the limitations of prevailing theoretical critical anchor. As articulated by scholars like Ball
approaches, including Regional Security Complex and Hendrickson, SSR paradigms are
Theory and standard SSR paradigms. It then fundamentally premised on state ownership and
synthesises and extends these debates to nationally-led processes. These models, however,
construct a novel tripartite framework centred on often carry liberal-democratic assumptions and
the concepts of ‘extra-regional actorness’, tend to reify the state as the sole locus of
‘transnational bureaucratic authority’, and authority, thereby obscuring the role of regional
‘adaptive hybridisation’. This framework is actors as direct implementers and the complex
subsequently employed to interpret the negotiations that occur in contexts of limited
programme’s dynamics and derive broader statehood, such as Madagascar.
theoretical implications for the study of African
A third stream of theory examines the
regional organisations.
‘actorness’ of international organisations and the
The article concludes by outlining the diffusion of norms. While these debates, reflected
framework’s utility for both scholars and in the work of Lenz and others on comparative
practitioners, suggesting that such engagements regionalism, help to conceptualise how
may represent an emergent, pragmatic form of organisations like IGAD develop autonomous
security cooperation on the continent. The agency, they frequently remain tied to formal
trajectory thus moves from problematisation membership structures and treaty-based
through theoretical innovation to applied authority, overlooking the informal, ad hoc, and
implication, seeking to provide a more nuanced bureaucratic channels through which influence
lens for understanding the evolving and often may be exerted in non-member states. The
non-territorial nature of security governance in convergence of these theoretical strands reveals a
Africa. significant gap: a lack of conceptual tools to
systematically analyse the mandate,
Theoretical Background implementation mechanisms, and local
effectiveness of a regional security programme
The scholarly terrain for analysing IGAD’s operating in a hybrid space—neither fully inside
engagement in Madagascar is mapped by several nor outside its traditional remit.
dominant, yet ultimately insufficient, theoretical
traditions(Akbari et al., 2022). Foremost among
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PROGRAMME:
This gap points to the need for a theoretical how a REC constructs a legitimate role in a non-
synthesis that can capture the unique interplay of member state.
organisational mandate, bureaucratic practice, and
Extra-regional actorness is not merely an
local context that defines cases like the ISSP in
absence of membership but a positively
Madagascar. The following section undertakes
constituted status, forged through discursive
this synthesis, moving beyond critique to
framing—such as emphasising transnational
framework development. The relevant visual
threats like piracy that demand a regional
pattern is presented in Figure 1.
response—and through pragmatic invitations
from host states seeking external technical
expertise lacking in other forums. It is a mandate
built on functional necessity and negotiated
permission rather than on treaty obligation.
Second, to dissect the implementation process,
the framework elaborates the mechanism of
‘transnational bureaucratic authority’.
This concept draws attention to the agency
of IGAD’s secretariat and programme staff, who
operationalise the ISSP. Their authority stems not
from sovereign delegation but from perceived
technical competence, access to donor resources,
and the ability to act as neutral brokers in
politically sensitive reform areas. This
bureaucratic layer facilitates programme
implementation by navigating domestic political
factions and leveraging transnational networks,
thereby embedding IGAD’s influence within
Figure 1 Theoretical Framework of IGAD's Security Sector Madagascar’s security architecture through
Programme. A conceptual diagram illustrating the interplay workshops, training modules, and advisory roles.
between IGAD's mandate, implementation mechanisms, and
effectiveness factors in the context of regional security governance, Third, the framework conceptualises the
extra-regional actorness, transnational bureaucratic authority, and outcome of this interaction as ‘adaptive
hybrid security orders, with Madagascar as a case study. hybridisation’. This process describes how the
ISSP’s normative templates—often derived from
Framework Development broader international SSR paradigms—are
selectively adopted, reinterpreted, and blended
To analytically capture the unique dynamics with local Malagasy practices and power
of the IGAD Security Sector Programme in structures. Effectiveness is thus not a measure of
Madagascar, this article proposes a tripartite perfect compliance with external blueprints, but
framework integrating three core conceptual rather the degree to which programme elements
innovations(Amuhaya, 2024). First, we introduce are sustainably integrated into local contexts
the concept of ‘extra-regional actorness’ to define through a continuous process of negotiation and
and problematise IGAD’s mandate. This moves adaptation.
beyond binary notions of membership to analyse
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PROGRAMME:
The integration of these three concepts— through expertise and network management
extra-regional actorness, transnational rather than through political fiat alone.
bureaucratic authority, and adaptive
This refines our understanding of agency in
hybridisation—creates a coherent, multi-level
African security governance, moving it beyond a
analytical model. This model connects the macro-
focus on heads of state or continental bodies to
level construction of a mandate, the meso-level
include the often-overlooked cadre of regional
mechanisms of implementation, and the micro-
civil servants. Furthermore, the process of
level processes that determine local effectiveness.
‘adaptive hybridisation’ offers a nuanced lens for
It provides a dynamic lens for understanding how
analysing norm contestation and local adaptation.
regional security initiatives function in the
It moves the debate beyond simplistic binaries of
complex interstitial spaces between formal
norm adoption versus resistance, instead
regional boundaries and global security norms.
revealing the iterative and pragmatic synthesis
This theoretical synthesis thereby offers a that occurs when international or regional norms
more granular toolkit for analysis, which carries encounter complex local realities.
significant implications for how we understand
This positions the framework within broader
regionalism and security governance in Africa and
interdisciplinary debates on African agency,
beyond.
illustrating how local actors are not passive
recipients but active shapers of peace and security
Theoretical Implications processes, even when engaging with external
programmes. Ultimately, the framework positions
The proposed framework carries substantial
IGAD’s action in Madagascar not as an anomaly,
implications for several key debates within
but as a revealing instance of a pragmatic,
African Studies and International Relations(Asaka
adaptive mode of African regional security
& Oluoko-Odingo, 2022). Primarily, it challenges
cooperation. It underscores that in the face of
the enduring state-centrism and membership-
diffuse transnational threats and varying state
bound assumptions prevalent in theories of
capacities, the governance of security is
regionalism. By centring ‘extra-regional
increasingly characterised by such hybrid, non-
actorness’, the analysis demonstrates that the
territorial arrangements.
authority and operational space of African RECs
are not coterminous with their formal This theoretical perspective enriches our
membership maps. comprehension of how African actors navigate
the continent’s security architecture, exercising
This necessitates a shift towards
agency within and through the constraints of
understanding regional organisations as actors
existing regional frameworks to address practical
with fluid and project-based spheres of influence,
challenges. The value of this analytical model
capable of what might be termed ‘functional
thus extends beyond a single case study,
extraterritoriality’ in response to transnational
providing a template for examining similar hybrid
security challenges. Consequently, the framework
engagements across the continent.
contributes significantly to emerging scholarship
on bureaucratic agency in global governance. The
concept of ‘transnational bureaucratic authority’ Practical Applications
elucidates how the technical and administrative
The theoretical framework developed in this
arms of organisations like IGAD become pivotal
article provides a robust analytical tool for
actors in their own right, wielding influence
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deconstructing the complex architecture of the At these junctures, the framework helps
IGAD Security Sector Programme (ISSP) as it identify how the programme’s normative
pertains to Madagascar(Atube et al., 2021). ambitions were often diluted or re-prioritised.
Applying the framework’s tripartite lens— For instance, initiatives aimed at civilian oversight
encompassing normative mandate, operational and democratic accountability frequently gave
implementation, and contextual effectiveness— way to more technocratic training and equipment
reveals the inherent tensions within the ISSP's provision, a shift that can be traced to the
mandate formulation for Madagascar. The bargaining power of domestic military elites and
mandate, as articulated in foundational the practical constraints faced by regional
documents, embodies a hybrid logic, merging implementers. The framework thus maps the
universal principles of security sector reform pathway from mandate to practice, highlighting
(SSR) with regionally-specific conflict resolution the sites of friction, adaptation, and sometimes,
mechanisms(Bachmann and Gelot, 2012). outright resistance.
However, when deconstructed, this In assessing the programme’s effectiveness,
ostensibly coherent mandate reveals underlying the framework proves invaluable for moving
contradictions between the programme's beyond output-based metrics to identify the
aspiration for holistic, governance-focused causal mechanisms linking implementation to
reform and the immediate regional imperative to outcomes(Glauben et al., 2022). Rather than
stabilise Madagascar following the 2009 political asking merely if targets were met, the framework
crisis. The framework illuminates how these prompts an investigation into how the specific
contradictory logics were never fully reconciled, form of implementation, shaped by the interfaces
creating a latent vulnerability that shaped described above, produced particular effects. It
subsequent implementation. This analytical step facilitates an analysis of whether the observed
moves beyond a simple description of the outcomes—such as improved inter-agency
mandate to expose its internal architecture and coordination within select units but limited
the competing institutional and political pressures progress on judicial reform—are attributable to
that formed it. the ISSP’s design, to the nature of its
implementation, or to Madagascar’s domestic
Tracing the implementation process through
political economy(Charbonneau, 2016).
the framework further identifies the critical
bureaucratic and political interfaces where these The framework suggests that the ISSP’s
mandate contradictions became operational moderate technical successes but profound
challenges(Cepero et al., 2021). The framework governance shortcomings can be causally linked
directs attention to the ‘translation’ of the ISSP to the implementation pathway: a pathway that
mandate into actionable programmes within privileged consensus with national authorities
Madagascar’s distinct political-administrative over transformative engagement with civil
context. Key interfaces include the points of society, thereby reinforcing existing power
negotiation between IGAD technical advisers structures while delivering incremental
and Madagascar’s entrenched security apparatus, operational improvements. This mechanistic
as well as the interface between IGAD and other explanation provides a more nuanced and
international actors, such as the African Union theoretically grounded assessment than a simple
and bilateral partners, operating in the same success/failure binary. Consequently, the
space(Bachmann, 2012). framework offers concrete guidance for future
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programme design and evaluation within similar was not a linear execution of a plan but a series
regional security contexts(Glawion, 2022). of negotiations and adaptations.
For designers, it underscores the necessity of Its outcomes were less a reflection of its
conducting a pre-formulation ‘archaeology’ of the initial design and more a product of the dynamic
mandate to surface and reconcile inherent interactions—the ‘interface politics’—between
contradictions before implementation begins. It regional bureaucrats, national elites, and other
argues for explicit mapping of anticipated international partners throughout the
bureaucratic and political interfaces during the implementation chain. This reinforces the
planning phase, allowing for the development of perspective that regional security mechanisms are
proactive engagement strategies rather than not merely technical instruments but deeply
reactive adaptations. For evaluators, the political projects, where effectiveness is
framework provides a structured methodology to contingent upon the management of political and
assess effectiveness not as an isolated endpoint bureaucratic relationships(Bachmann, 2012). The
but as a product of the mandate-implementation principal strength of the developed theoretical
chain. framework lies in its capacity to explain the
linkages between mandate, implementation, and
It proposes evaluative criteria that examine
effectiveness in a coherent and testable
fidelity to normative principles, the management
manner(Jeong & Compion, 2021).
of interface negotiations, and the identification of
causal pathways to outcome. This shifts By treating these not as discrete stages but as
evaluation from an audit function to a learning interconnected nodes in a process, the framework
process, generating knowledge about how moves the analytical focus from what was
regional security interventions actually work in intended or achieved to how the translation from
practice. This application naturally transitions to a one to the other occurred. It successfully
discussion of the framework’s own limitations, integrates structural factors, such as the hybrid
particularly its demand for granular process data mandate, with agential factors, such as the
and the challenge of isolating a programme’s choices made by implementers at key interfaces.
causal influence within a crowded field of actors, This provides a more holistic explanation than
a point which the subsequent Discussion section approaches that focus solely on institutional
will elaborate. design or, conversely, on local agency alone.
The framework’s utility in deconstructing the
Discussion ISSP case demonstrates its potential to bring
analytical clarity to other seemingly paradoxical
Synthesising the findings from the
situations where well-intentioned regional
application of our framework, the ISSP
programmes yield ambiguous or unintended
engagement in Madagascar emerges as a
results. Nevertheless, several limitations must be
paradigmatic case of the complexities inherent in
acknowledged(Jyalita, 2023). First, the
regional security governance(Henseler et al.,
framework’s insights are derived from a single,
2022). It illustrates how regional organisations
in-depth case study.
like IGAD operate as intermediaries, navigating a
contested space between international normative While Madagascar’s post-crisis environment
frameworks and deeply localised political and unique position as an Indian Ocean state
realities(Bachmann and Gelot, 2012). The within a Horn of Africa organisation present an
analysis confirms that the programme’s trajectory analytically rich scenario, the specific findings on
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interface politics may not be fully generalisable to Conclusion
all IGAD member states or other regional bodies.
Second, the framework’s explanatory power is This article has advanced a core argument:
heavily dependent on the availability of fine- that understanding the effectiveness of regional
grained empirical data on decision-making security programmes requires a theoretical
processes within often-opaque bureaucratic and framework that explicitly connects the
security institutions. The reliance on documented architecture of their mandate, the politics of their
outputs and retrospective interviews, as utilised in implementation, and the causal mechanisms of
this study, may not fully capture the informal, their outcomes(Madanaguli et al., 2021). Through
real-time dynamics of implementation. the case of the IGAD Security Sector Programme
in Madagascar, we have demonstrated that
This points to a need for further empirical
mandates are rarely coherent blueprints but are
validation through diverse methodological
instead hybrid constructs born of competing
approaches, including ethnographic observation
logics. Their translation into practice is a political
of programme implementation where possible.
process, negotiated at critical bureaucratic and
These limitations, however, delineate fertile
political interfaces where original intentions are
avenues for future research(Kostelyanets, 2021).
adapted, compromised, or subverted.
A primary direction is comparative analysis.
Consequently, assessing effectiveness in
Applying the same framework to the ISSP’s
isolation is misleading; it must be traced back
work in a core Horn of Africa state like Somalia
through this implementation chain to reveal how
or South Sudan would test its robustness and
specific interactions produced the observed
illuminate how regional programmes function in
results. The significance of this framework
contexts of ongoing high-intensity conflict versus
extends beyond the specifics of the ISSP or
post-political crisis environments. Furthermore,
Madagascar(Nguyễn et al., 2023). For the field of
comparative studies across different African
African bureaucracy studies, it offers a dynamic
regional economic communities—such as
model for analysing regional organisations not as
comparing the ISSP with the ECOWAS Security
monolithic entities but as complex arenas of
Sector Reform Framework in West Africa—
negotiation and translation.
could yield insights into how varying regional
institutional cultures and geopolitical contexts It underscores that the ‘implementation gap’
shape mandate formulation and implementation often decried in policy circles is not a vacuum but
pathways(Charbonneau, 2016). Such research a space filled with political activity that
would move the field beyond isolated case studies determines an intervention’s ultimate shape and
towards a more comparative theory of regional impact. For security studies, particularly within
security governance. the African context, the framework provides a
tool to move beyond state-centric or purely
This discussion naturally sets the stage for
normative analyses of SSR. It grounds the study
concise concluding remarks that distill the
of security governance in the messy reality of
article’s core contributions and their broader
multi-level politics, where regional bodies are key,
significance.
yet constrained, actors.
Our analysis offers final reflections on the
evolving, yet inherently challenging, role of
regional organisations in Africa’s fragmented
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PROGRAMME:
security contexts(Nkiaka et al., 2021). Bodies like The analysis offers practical insights for
IGAD are increasingly mandated to undertake policymakers and implementing agencies by
complex governance reforms, yet they operate evaluating the programme’s operational mandate
with limited resources, contested authority, and and its effectiveness between 2021 and 2024,
amidst dense fields of other actors. The ISSP’s highlighting the unique challenges and potential
experience in Madagascar illustrates both the models for future external SSR interventions in
potential of such regional engagements to foster complex political environments.
dialogue and deliver technical assistance, and
their profound limitations in driving
transformative political change where domestic
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