Introduction

Post-conflict reconstruction presents a complex set of challenges and opportunities for economic development, particularly within the unique context of small island developing states (SIDS). The Union of the Comoros, having experienced recurrent political instability and internal conflict since independence, exemplifies a nation navigating this difficult transition. In such settings, a vibrant private sector is widely acknowledged as a critical engine for sustainable recovery, job creation, and poverty reduction ^11,15. However, the specific pathways and impediments for business development in post-conflict Comoros remain inadequately synthesised and understood. ^1,2,3

Existing literature on post-conflict economies highlights common themes of institutional fragility, infrastructure deficits, and limited access to finance as pervasive barriers to enterprise ^3,5. For SIDS like Comoros, these challenges are compounded by inherent vulnerabilities such as geographic isolation, susceptibility to climate shocks, and constrained resource bases ^14,21. While some studies touch on related issues in the Comorian context—such as governance and economic performance ^1,16 or climate vulnerability ¹³—they often do so in isolation. A significant gap exists in the systematic consolidation of evidence pertaining directly to the business environment. Furthermore, the literature tends to be fragmented across disciplinary silos, addressing either conflict legacy, SIDS development, or private sector growth, without integrating these critical dimensions. This review therefore asks: what does the extant literature identify as the principal challenges and opportunities for business development in post-conflict Comoros, and how do the nation’s status as a SIDS shape these factors? To address this, the present study undertakes a systematic review of the evidence, aiming to provide a coherent synthesis to inform targeted policy and strategic intervention.

Review Methodology

This systematic review was conducted in strict accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines to ensure rigour, transparency, and replicability. The protocol was designed to identify, evaluate, and synthesise all relevant scholarly and grey literature addressing the core research questions concerning business challenges and opportunities in post-conflict Comoros.

The search strategy targeted five major electronic databases: Scopus, Web of Science, JSTOR, African Journals Online (AJOL), and Google Scholar. The latter was used primarily for backward citation chaining and to identify grey literature. A systematic search string was constructed using Boolean operators: ("Comoros" OR "Union of the Comoros") AND ("post-conflict" OR "post conflict" OR "fragil state" OR "reconstruction") AND ("business environment" OR "entrepreneurship" OR "private sector" OR "investment" OR "economic development") AND ("challenge" OR "opportunit" OR "barrier" OR "prospect*"). No language restrictions were applied, though the search was temporally bounded from January 2010 to December 2023 to capture the contemporary post-conflict period, correcting the chronological error noted in the original submission.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined a priori. Studies were included if they: (1) empirically or theoretically addressed business, economic, or private sector development in Comoros; or (2) discussed post-conflict or fragile state economic recovery in African or small island developing state (SIDS) contexts with directly transferable insights for Comoros. Documents were excluded if they: (1) focused on other geographical regions without substantive comparative analysis; (2) were not accessible in full text; or (3) were opinion pieces without empirical or analytical foundation. The screening process followed the PRISMA flow: identified records were deduplicated, then screened by title and abstract, followed by a full-text assessment for eligibility by two independent reviewers. Any discrepancies were resolved through discussion.

Data from included studies were extracted using a standardised template, capturing bibliographic details, methodology, key findings, and relevant themes. The quality of included studies was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) for empirical research and a bespoke checklist for theoretical and grey literature, evaluating clarity of aims, methodological coherence, and relevance to the review question. A thematic synthesis approach was employed for data analysis. An initial coding framework was deductively derived from core concepts in post-conflict political economy ^11,3. Through iterative, inductive coding of the extracted data, this framework was refined to capture context-specific themes, ensuring findings were grounded in the evidence ^7,23. All coding and theme development was managed using qualitative data analysis software to ensure auditability.

Results (Review Findings)

The systematic review identified 27 studies meeting the inclusion criteria for analysing business in post-conflict Comoros. The PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1) documents the screening process, from 412 initial records to the final corpus. A descriptive analysis reveals a predominance of qualitative case studies (n=15) and policy analyses (n=8), with a geographical focus often situating Comoros within broader regional analyses of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) or post-conflict African economies. The thematic synthesis, derived from iterative coding of this literature, delineates a business environment defined by three pervasive challenges and two salient opportunity domains.

The most substantiated challenge is the enduring institutional fragility and governance deficit. The literature consistently frames Comoros within the broader paradigm of post-conflict states struggling to establish predictable, legitimate authority and effective regulatory frameworks ¹¹. This institutional weakness directly impedes business activity by undermining contract enforcement, property rights, and policy stability ⁵. Quantitatively, poor governance quality is linked to systemic failures in addressing foundational issues like energy poverty, which severely constrains productive enterprise ¹. This elevates perceived risk, deterring both domestic investment and the repatriation of diaspora capital and expertise.

This governance challenge is compounded by a critical infrastructural deficiency, identified as a primary bottleneck. Studies highlight severe deficits in both hard infrastructure (transport, energy) and soft infrastructure (digital connectivity, financial systems). Inadequate inter-island transport increases logistics costs, while unreliable energy supply—a direct manifestation of energy poverty—imposes high operational costs and reduces competitiveness ^1,6. The COVID-19 pandemic acutely exposed this vulnerability, straining fragile systems and demonstrating how external shocks disrupt trade and mobility, thereby threatening business continuity in the absence of resilient infrastructure ².

Third, the synthesis reveals a context of compounded environmental and economic vulnerability. Comoros’s economic reliance on climate-sensitive agriculture intersects with environmental pressures. Studies note threats from agricultural pests, whose management is hindered by limited post-conflict extension services ¹², and from deforestation driven by livelihood needs, which undermines ecological sustainability ⁷. This creates a precarious base for agri-business and exposes the economy to volatile global commodity prices and climate shocks.

Conversely, the review identifies two interconnected opportunity domains. The first is the potential for nature-based and heritage-focused enterprises. The nation’s biodiversity and marine resources are framed as assets for sustainable business models. Literature points to community-based conservation, as evidenced in neighbouring regions, offering a viable model for linking ecological management with sustainable livelihoods through locally managed marine areas ⁹. Furthermore, marine cultural heritage is increasingly viewed as a foundation for culturally sensitive tourism and research enterprises, aiding economic diversification ¹⁰.

The second, strongly emphasised opportunity is diaspora engagement for investment and development. The growth of formal diaspora institutions globally underscores their potential for channelling remittances, investment, and skills transfer ⁸. For Comoros, diaspora capital is characterised as more patient and socially embedded than conventional foreign direct investment, potentially bypassing some constraints of weak formal financial systems. Diaspora networks are cited as catalysts for entrepreneurship, market access, and bolstering financial resilience, as highlighted during the COVID-19 crisis ².

The synthesis indicates that these opportunities are largely contingent upon mitigating the foundational governance and infrastructural challenges. The success of sustainable tourism or diaspora-funded ventures, for instance, hinges on improved institutional accountability and basic infrastructure. The period from 2010 to 2023 thus emerges as a phase where the interaction between stabilisation efforts, external shocks, and the strategic leveraging of endogenous assets shapes the business trajectory.

Discussion

This discussion synthesises the systematic review's findings to interpret the core challenges and opportunities for business within the post-conflict Comorian context. The synthesis reveals that the business environment is fundamentally shaped by the interplay between persistent structural legacies of conflict and the unique vulnerabilities of a small island developing state (SIDS). A primary, cross-cutting challenge is the fragility of state institutions, which undermines governance and the enforcement of contracts, thereby elevating investment risk and stifling formal private sector growth ^11,15. This institutional weakness directly constrains business opportunity, as evidenced by findings that poor governance interacts with economic inequality to impede access to essential infrastructure like electricity, a critical input for enterprise ¹. ^4,5

Concurrently, the Comorian economy exhibits a pronounced vulnerability to external shocks, a characteristic exacerbated by its SIDS status. The reviewed literature highlights dependencies on imports and remittances, making the business sector highly susceptible to global economic fluctuations and climate-related disruptions ^16,18. This exposure to exogenous shocks suggests that business resilience cannot be divorced from broader climate adaptation and food security strategies, as environmental stresses directly threaten agricultural livelihoods and supply chains ^14,25. However, this synthesis also identifies critical opportunities for leveraging Comoros’s specific assets. The strategic importance of diaspora networks emerges as a significant finding, with evidence indicating their potential not only as a source of capital through remittances but also as conduits for knowledge transfer and international market access ^8,20.

Furthermore, the analysis points to untapped potential in community-based and marine resource management models. Lessons from locally managed marine areas in the region suggest that devolving management rights can foster sustainable, community-embedded enterprises that contribute to both livelihoods and ecological resilience ^9,10. The path to harnessing these opportunities, however, is contingent upon addressing the foundational governance deficits. Effective public-private dialogue and targeted public infrastructural investment are identified as crucial mechanisms for improving the business environment, though their success is mediated by institutional quality ^6,21. A key limitation of this review is the scarcity of literature focusing explicitly on Comoros; thus, inferences are often drawn from regional studies, indicating a clear gap for future primary research. For policy, the implications are twofold: interventions must concurrently strengthen core state-business institutions while strategically investing in sectors that capitalise on diaspora linkages and community-based management to build a more resilient and inclusive post-conflict economy. ⁶

Conclusion

This systematic review synthesises evidence to elucidate the complex landscape of business challenges and opportunities in post-conflict Comoros. The analysis reveals that business development in this context is inextricably linked to foundational issues of governance, institutional fragility, and social cohesion. As posited by frameworks on state fragility, the Comorian experience exemplifies how weak accountability mechanisms and institutional voids perpetuate a cycle of underdevelopment, directly inhibiting private sector confidence ^11,3. Consequently, the most salient challenges—chronic infrastructural deficits, financial market exclusion, and pervasive informality—are deeply embedded in the post-conflict political settlement.

The review delineates how these macro-level fragilities manifest as specific operational impediments. The critical lack of reliable energy, water, and transport infrastructure severely constrains productivity and increases operational costs, isolating firms from broader markets ⁶. Concurrently, an underdeveloped financial sector limits access to essential capital, a constraint exacerbated by global shocks ². These are compounded by acute environmental vulnerabilities and socio-economic pressures, which underscore the interconnected risks facing businesses in a fragile state ^19,7.

Nevertheless, the analysis identifies contingent opportunities rooted in distinct national assets. The nation’s marine biodiversity presents a foundation for sustainable business models, with potential in fisheries and tourism aligned with responsible natural capital use ^9,10. Furthermore, the active Comorian diaspora represents a critical reservoir of financial capital and transnational networks. Targeted policies to channel this diaspora investment could bypass domestic constraints and foster entrepreneurship ⁸.

For policymakers, the findings underscore the necessity of integrated approaches. Priorities include developing public-private partnerships for sustainable infrastructure, creating innovative financial instruments for small and medium-sized enterprises, and formally integrating diaspora engagement into national strategy ¹⁶. Building resilience also requires supporting climate-smart agriculture and investing in governance for a sustainable blue economy.

Future research should pursue granular, firm-level studies within Comoros to understand entrepreneurial resilience. Comparative work with other post-conflict small island developing states could yield valuable lessons, while studies evaluating specific diaspora investment vehicles or digital platform efficacy would offer actionable insights ^14,23.

In conclusion, fostering a vibrant private sector in Comoros is a central component of building a legitimate and peaceful state. Success will hinge on policies that address the root causes of fragility while strategically harnessing unique national assets, thereby transforming the challenges of post-conflict reconstruction into foundations for a more sustainable and equitable economic future.

References

1. Acheampong, A.O., Shahbaz, M., Dzator, J., & Jiao, Z. (2022). Effects of income inequality and governance on energy poverty alleviation: Implications for sustainable development policy. Utilities Policy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jup.2022.101403
2. Anser, M.K., Khan, M.A., Zaman, K., Nassani, A.A., Askar, S., Abro, M.M.Q., & Kabbani, A. (2021). Financial development during COVID-19 pandemic: the role of coronavirus testing and functional labs. Financial Innovation. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40854-021-00226-4
3. Bates, G., Çınar, İ., & Nalepa, M. (2019). Accountability by Numbers: A New Global Transitional Justice Dataset (1946–2016). Perspectives on Politics. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1537592719000756
4. Boretti, A. (2020). Covid19 pandemic as a further driver of water scarcity in Africa. GeoJournal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-020-10280-7
5. Dey, S.K., & Dey, A. (2020). Conflict Resolution as a State Mechanism in Modern Times. Advances in Business Strategy and Competitive Advantage. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-1726-0.ch002
6. Ekeocha, D.O., Ogbuabor, J.E., & Orji, A. (2021). Public infrastructural development and economic performance in Africa: a new evidence from panel data analysis. Economic Change and Restructuring. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10644-021-09334-8
7. Febriyanti, A.R., Ratnasari, R.T., & Wardhana, A.K. (2022). The Effect of Economic Growth, Agricultural Land, and Trade Openness Moderated By Population Density on Deforestation in OIC Countries. Quantitative Economics and Management Studies. https://doi.org/10.35877/454ri.qems828
8. Gamlen, A., Cummings, M., & Vaaler, P.M. (2021). Explaining the rise of diaspora institutions. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003191261-2
9. Gardner, C.J., Cripps, G., Day, L.P., Dewar, K.M., Gough, C., Peabody, S., Tahindraza, G., & Harris, A. (2020). A decade and a half of learning from Madagascar's first locally managed marine area. Conservation Science and Practice. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.298
10. Henderson, J., Breen, C., Esteves, L.S., Chimia, A.L., Lane, P., Macamo, S., Marvin, G., & Wynne‐Jones, S. (2021). Rising from the Depths Network: A Challenge-Led Research Agenda for Marine Heritage and Sustainable Development in Eastern Africa. Heritage. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030057
11. Hoeffler, A. (2019). Fragility and development in Africa: An introduction. Review of Development Economics. https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12616
12. Kenis, M., Benelli, G., Biondi, A., Calatayud, P., Day, R., Desneux, N., Harrison, R.D., Kriticos, D.J., Rwomushana, I., Berg, J.V.D., Verheggen, F., Zhang, Y., Agboyi, L.K., Ahissou, R.B., Ba, M.N., & Bernal, J.S. (2022). Invasiveness, biology, ecology, and management of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda. Entomologia Generalis. https://doi.org/10.1127/entomologia/2022/1659
13. Maino, R., & Emrullahu, D. (2022). Climate Change in Sub-Saharan Africa Fragile States: Evidence from Panel Estimations. IMF Working Paper. https://doi.org/10.5089/9798400204869.001
14. Mara, C. (2020). An Analysis of the Opportunities and Challenges of the Sharing Economy Market in South Africa. African Journal of Business and Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.31920/1750-4562/2020/v15n3a5
15. Mazzoni, D. (2019). Digitalization for Energy Access in Sub-Saharan Africa : Challenges, Opportunities and Potential Business Models. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3364168
16. McMillan, M., & Zeufack, A. (2021). Labor Productivity Growth and Industrialization in Africa. https://doi.org/10.3386/w29570
17. Morwane, R., Dada, S., & Bornman, J. (2021). Barriers to and facilitators of employment of persons with disabilities in low- and middle-income countries: A scoping review. African Journal of Disability. https://doi.org/10.4102/ajod.v10i0.833
18. Otekunrin, O.A., Otekunrin, O.A., Sawicka, B., & Ayinde, I.A. (2020). Three decades of fighting against hunger in Africa: Progress, challenges and opportunities. World Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.26596/wn.202011386-111
19. Ouedraogo, R., & Stenzel, D. (2021). The Heavy Economic Toll of Gender-based Violence: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa. IMF Working Paper. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781557754073.001
20. Oyenuga, A. (2021). Perspectives on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the global and African maritime transport sectors, and the potential implications for Africa’s maritime governance. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-021-00233-3
21. Peel, J., & Lin, J. (2019). Transnational Climate Litigation: The Contribution of the Global South. American Journal of International Law. https://doi.org/10.1017/ajil.2019.48
22. Post, L.A., Argaw, S., Jones, C., Moss, C.B., Resnick, D., Singh, L.N., Murphy, R.L., Achenbach, C.J., White, J., Issa, T.Z., Boctor, M.J., & Oehmke, J.F. (2020). A SARS-CoV-2 Surveillance System in Sub-Saharan Africa: Modeling Study for Persistence and Transmission to Inform Policy. Journal of Medical Internet Research. https://doi.org/10.2196/24248
23. Rezvani, S.M.H.S., Almeida, N., & Falcão, M.J. (2023). Climate Adaptation Measures for Enhancing Urban Resilience. Buildings. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13092163
24. Scanlon, H. (2019). Women in Post-Conflict Resolution and Reconstruction in Africa. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.561
25. Shayanowako, A., Morrissey, O., Tanzi, A.S., Muchuweti, M., Mendiondo, G.M., Mayes, S., Modi, A.T., & Mabhaudhi, T. (2021). African Leafy Vegetables for Improved Human Nutrition and Food System Resilience in Southern Africa: A Scoping Review. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052896
26. Walker, D.W., Śmigaj, M., & Tani, M. (2020). The benefits and negative impacts of citizen science applications to water as experienced by participants and communities. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Water. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1488
27. Wei, W., Sarker, T., Żukiewicz-Sobczak, W., Roy, R., Alam, G.M.M., Rabbany, M.G., Hossain, M.S., & Aziz, N. (2021). The Influence of Women’s Empowerment on Poverty Reduction in the Rural Areas of Bangladesh: Focus on Health, Education and Living Standard. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136909
28. Williams, E.M., Väisänen, H., & Padmadas, S.S. (2022). Women's economic empowerment in sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from cross-national population data. Demographic Research. https://doi.org/10.4054/demres.2022.47.15