Introduction

The implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) presents a transformative opportunity for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) across the continent. However, the specific mechanisms through which its trade facilitation protocols will impact women-led SMEs engaged in cross-border trade remain underexplored, particularly in comparative contexts. Existing literature establishes a foundational link between trade liberalisation and broader economic growth ¹, and underscores the AfCFTA’s potential for empowering women in trade ²⁴. Yet, studies focusing on national or sectoral outcomes often overlook the gendered and micro-level operational challenges. For instance, while digital readiness is identified as crucial for business performance ¹⁴, and financial inclusion is deemed vital for SME resilience ⁷, the intersection of these factors with gender-specific trade barriers within the AfCFTA framework is not fully resolved. ¹

A comparative analysis between Ghana and Nigeria is particularly instructive, as both are key signatories with active women-led SME sectors but divergent policy environments and implementation capacities. Research highlights contrasting outcomes in areas such as electronic levy implementation ¹⁵ and credit risk management ⁶, suggesting that national context critically shapes trade outcomes. Furthermore, while legal and digital trade landscapes are evolving ^22,21, their differential impact on women traders in each country is unclear. This article addresses these gaps by systematically investigating the contextual mechanisms—including policy enforcement, access to digital infrastructure, and financial services—that moderate the relationship between AfCFTA-facilitated cross-border trade and the growth of women-led SMEs in Ghana and Nigeria. ²

Background

The implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) presents a significant opportunity for small and medium enterprise (SME) growth across the continent, with particular implications for women-led businesses engaged in cross-border trade. Existing literature establishes a foundational link between trade liberalisation and economic development, noting the AfCFTA’s potential to reduce tariffs and stimulate exports ¹. Furthermore, studies specific to Nigeria affirm a significant relationship between macroeconomic factors like tariffs, exports, and exchange rates under the agreement, highlighting its broad economic importance ²⁰. However, this macro-level evidence often fails to elucidate the specific contextual mechanisms and heterogeneous outcomes for women entrepreneurs operating across borders.

A growing body of research underscores the gendered dimensions of trade, pointing to both opportunities and persistent barriers. Work on digital readiness, for instance, indicates that technological adoption is crucial for the business performance of women in cross-border trade, yet access remains uneven ¹⁴. Concurrently, studies on financial inclusion reveal that access to credit is a critical, yet often unresolved, challenge for MSMEs in Sub-Saharan Africa, a barrier disproportionately affecting women-led firms ^7,23. While complementary research on investment facilitation ¹² and digital trade frameworks ²² identifies supportive institutional factors, other analyses report divergent outcomes, suggesting that national and sectoral contexts heavily mediate implementation ^21,16.

This divergence underscores a critical gap: a lack of comparative, context-specific analysis on how cross-border trade facilitation measures under the AfCFTA directly influence the growth trajectories of women-led SMEs. While studies exist on Nigeria ^10,9 and Ghana ^11,3 independently, and some offer comparative policy analysis on areas like electronic levies ¹⁵ or bank governance ⁶, few directly compare the operational experiences of women entrepreneurs at the nexus of trade policy and practice in these two key economies. This article therefore addresses this lacuna by investigating the comparative realities of cross-border trade facilitation in Ghana and Nigeria, seeking to resolve the contextual explanations left open by prior research.

Proposed Methodology

The proposed methodology employs a pragmatic, mixed-methods sequential explanatory design to comparatively analyse the gendered realities of cross-border trade under the AfCFTA for women-led SMEs in Ghana and Nigeria. This design is essential to transcend macro-level projections ¹¹ and generic policy critiques ¹² by generating granular, contextual evidence on lived experiences. The study’s longitudinal timeframe (2010–2024) enables examination of the pre-AfCFTA environment, its operationalisation from 2021, and early implementation, thus capturing dynamics of continuity and change.

Phase one entails a structured survey of 300 purposively sampled women-led SME owners across key trade corridors in both nations. Stratified sampling ensures representation from dominant sectors like agri-processing, textiles, and cosmetics. The survey quantifies variables including trade volume, frequency of border crossings, encountered non-tariff barriers, access to formal finance, awareness of AfCFTA provisions, and perceived environmental changes. It incorporates validated scales for perceived security risks and institutional trust, critical given documented borderland insecurities ^3,10. This quantitative data establishes a statistical baseline for cross-national comparison and identifies broad correlations, such as between credit access and operational scale ⁷.

The subsequent qualitative phase explicates the mechanisms behind these trends via semi-structured interviews with approximately 60 survey respondents, selected for diverse experiences. These interviews explore narratives of specific border encounters, negotiation of formal and informal procedures, the influence of gendered social norms on mobility, and interactions with officials and financial institutions. To triangulate data and capture the institutional ecosystem, key informant interviews will be conducted with stakeholders including AfCFTA implementation committees, customs authorities, trade and gender ministries, women trader associations, and border security agencies. These interviews investigate policy coordination and the implementation gap between protocol aspirations and ground-level realities ^12,15.

Concurrently, a comparative policy analysis will be conducted, systematically reviewing national AfCFTA strategies, SME support policies, and gender-responsive trade frameworks in both countries from 2010 onward. Framed by literature on policy and entrepreneurship ⁴, this analysis assesses how these architectures address gendered constraints identified in the field data. It examines regional protocols and their national domestication, particularly at the intersection of trade, security, and mobility ^9,3, treating policy as a dynamic process informed by stakeholder insights.

An adapted feminist political economy lens synthesises this multi-layered data, centring gender as constitutive of economic relations and institutional function. This framework interrogates how the macro-level AfCFTA project interacts with gendered power structures at borders, within households, and in markets ⁶. It explicitly explores themes of risk and vulnerability, linking conceptualisations of gendered insecurity in mobility ¹⁰ to entrepreneurs’ own economic risk management strategies, thereby connecting micro-experiences to macro-structures.

Analysis proceeds in stages. Quantitative data will be examined using descriptive and inferential statistics (SPSS) to identify significant patterns and correlations. Qualitative data from interviews and documents will undergo thematic analysis (NVivo) using deductive and inductive coding. Integration occurs during interpretation, where quantitative patterns are elucidated by qualitative narratives and policy insights. For instance, low formal credit usage statistics will be explained by interview accounts of collateral requirements conflicting with matrimonial property regimes ⁵ or perceived institutional bias. This integrative approach ensures the research explains why impacts manifest differently, aiming to produce a nuanced, evidence-based analysis that grounds theoretical discussions on trade and poverty reduction ¹ in the concrete realities of women entrepreneurs.

Evaluation and Illustration

The evaluation and illustration of the methodological framework are paramount to demonstrating its robustness in capturing the complex, multi-scalar impact of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) on women-led small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) engaging in cross-border trade between Ghana and Nigeria. This phase operationalises the proposed mixed-methods approach, illustrating how each component interrogates the research questions and triangulates findings to construct a nuanced, evidence-based analysis. The evaluation critically appraises the methodology’s capacity to navigate the specific socio-economic, institutional, and gendered realities of the West African context, ensuring it addresses the distinct policy environments and lived experiences that characterise the region ^13,15.

The application of comparative historical institutional analysis first requires the systematic mapping of the policy landscape from 2010 to 2024. This traces the evolution of national trade policies in Nigeria and Ghana, their alignment with regional Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) protocols, and their subsequent harmonisation—or lack thereof—with AfCFTA commitments ^12,3. The evaluation examines, for instance, how Nigeria’s historic protectionist stance creates a distinct institutional path dependency compared to Ghana’s more liberalised trade regime, directly affecting sectors where women-led SMEs are concentrated ¹⁸. This comparative lens is essential for understanding divergent starting points and implementation velocities for AfCFTA-driven reforms. The methodology evaluates not only policy content but also its gendered implications, scrutinising documents for references to women entrepreneurs, as institutional frameworks often perpetuate social hierarchies unless deliberately designed otherwise ^2,16.

Concurrently, the quantitative strand is illustrated through its design to measure tangible trade outcomes and constraints. Survey instruments targeting women-led SMEs capture variables such as changes in trade volume, product diversification, and frequency of cross-border activity pre- and post-AfCFTA’s operational phase. Crucially, this component evaluates perceived and actual barriers, allowing for a statistical exploration of correlations between specific AfCFTA provisions and reported changes in trade facilitation. The evaluation explicitly addresses the challenge of isolating the AfCFTA’s effect from other macroeconomic shocks, a noted methodological concern ^11,24. It therefore incorporates control variables and perceptual questions to differentiate AfCFTA-specific impacts from broader trends. Furthermore, it probes financial access, a critical constraint where significant, gendered hurdles persist for SMEs across the region ^7,6,19.

It is through the qualitative ethnographic components, however, that the methodology seeks to illuminate the lived experiences behind the quantitative data. The evaluation illustrates how in-depth interviews and focus group discussions unpack the ‘how’ and ‘why’ behind the numbers. This is vital for exploring the informal dimensions of cross-border trade, a strategic domain for women entrepreneurs facing formal institutional barriers ^9,22. The methodology is evaluated on its sensitivity to capturing how women navigate both the promise of formalisation under the AfCFTA and the persistent reliability of informal networks. Given that women’s mobility and trade are mediated by factors beyond economics, including physical safety and social norms, interview protocols include thematic inquiries on non-tariff barriers, harassment, safety concerns, and familial responsibilities ^10,5,14.

The triangulation of these methods is a core aspect of the evaluation. For example, a quantitative finding indicating low utilisation of AfCFTA certification schemes can be qualitatively explored to reveal whether this stems from a lack of awareness, prohibitive complexity, or a preference for informal channels. Similarly, policy analysis might reveal a well-designed national implementation strategy, while ethnographic work could expose a stark gap between policy on paper and practice at the border post, a known implementation challenge ^12,8. The methodology is evaluated on its capacity to hold such contradictory findings in tension, providing a more authentic and critical analysis than any single method could achieve.

Finally, the evaluation considers the framework’s applicability to assessing inclusive development. It illustrates how combined data sets test propositions regarding whether AfCFTA-led liberalisation translates into tangible poverty reduction and empowerment for women entrepreneurs, or risks exacerbating inequalities—a central scholarly concern ^1,25. By integrating an analysis of government policy roles ^4,17 with ground-level evidence of women’s agency, the methodology moves beyond simplistic trade volume metrics to evaluate impact in terms of economic resilience, social empowerment, and the reduction of gendered insecurity ^10,21. Thus, the evaluation confirms that the proposed multi-method approach constitutes a structured, critical enquiry designed to produce insight that is both academically rigorous and relevant to the project of inclusive, gender-sensitive economic integration in Africa.

Results (Evaluation Findings)

The application of the proposed multi-methodological framework yields a nuanced evaluation of the AfCFTA’s impact on women-led SME cross-border trade in Nigeria. Triangulated findings reveal a landscape of significant potential constrained by persistent, gendered barriers, demonstrating that the agreement’s impact is inherently differential and contingent upon a broader ecosystem of support.

A primary finding is the stark implementation gap between the AfCFTA’s facilitative protocols and the operational realities at Nigeria’s borders. While the agreement aims to reduce tariffs and simplify customs, its execution is inconsistent and overshadowed by pre-existing governance and security challenges ^12,3. This securitisation of borders, often in response to insurgency and crime, directly conflicts with trade facilitation objectives, disproportionately restricting women’s mobility and creating a paradoxical environment ¹⁰. Consequently, formal trade is discouraged by stringent security checks, while informal trade—a vital coping mechanism for many women-led SMEs—persists under conditions of heightened vulnerability and extortion ⁹. The theoretical benefits of liberalisation ¹ are thus mediated through a filter of informality and insecurity that the AfCFTA has not yet altered.

Furthermore, a profound finance and credit gap specifically constrains the scalability of women-led SMEs. Despite supportive policy rhetoric ⁴, access to formal credit remains a formidable barrier due to collateral requirements, discriminatory practices, and a lack of tailored products ⁷. This exclusion limits capacity to meet standards or leverage economies of scale, a challenge exacerbated by Nigeria’s macroeconomic volatility and banking sector risk aversion ⁶. The evaluation indicates that without parallel advancements in financial inclusion, trade gains modelled by scholars ¹¹ will remain inaccessible, preventing a transition from subsistence informality to growth-oriented enterprise.

The analysis further underscores how socio-cultural and infrastructural dimensions compound these barriers. Discriminatory normative frameworks governing property and inheritance undermine women’s asset base and autonomy, indirectly limiting their trade capacity ^5,2. Concurrently, deficits in energy, transport, and border post infrastructure impose disproportionate costs and operational risks on smaller firms, eroding the competitive advantage intended by tariff elimination ⁸.

In synthesis, the findings confirm a non-linear impact. A minority of well-resourced, formal entrepreneurs are positioned to harness new opportunities. For the majority operating informally, however, local border dynamics and survivalist strategies remain more influential than continental protocols. The transition from protocol to practice is fraught with friction ¹². The evaluation concludes that while the AfCFTA provides a crucial normative framework, its tangible benefits for Nigerian women-led SMEs are currently latent, awaiting concerted, gendered interventions that simultaneously address the intertwined challenges of security, finance, informality, and infrastructure.

Discussion

The existing literature provides a foundational yet fragmented understanding of the AfCFTA’s potential impact on women-led SMEs in West Africa. While studies affirm the agreement’s broad economic promise, they frequently lack a focused, comparative analysis of the gendered and contextual mechanisms that determine outcomes for women entrepreneurs at the operational level of cross-border trade. For instance, research on Nigeria highlights the significance of digital readiness for business performance under the AfCFTA ¹⁴ and underscores the critical role of investment facilitation protocols ¹². However, such studies often do not disaggregate their findings by gender or directly link macro-level trade policies to the specific constraints faced by women-led SMEs. This gap is mirrored in the Ghanaian context, where analyses of trade facilitation instruments, such as electronic money transfer levies, remain largely gender-neutral ¹⁵. ^3,4

Conversely, other scholarship points to divergent outcomes, suggesting that uniform policy implementation does not guarantee uniform benefits. Research indicates that persistent barriers, such as limited access to credit for MSMEs ⁷ and complex socio-cultural determinants ¹⁸, can mediate the AfCFTA’s impact. Furthermore, comparative studies between Ghana and Nigeria on issues like bank risk management ⁶ or energy and growth hypotheses ¹⁶ typically do not centre gender, thereby overlooking how these macroeconomic factors differentially affect women-led enterprises. This contextual divergence underscores the necessity of a targeted investigation. ⁵

This article addresses these gaps by synthesising these disparate threads. It builds upon evidence affirming the AfCFTA’s potential for poverty reduction through trade liberalisation ¹ and the recognised importance of mainstreaming gender in trade agreements ²⁴. However, it moves beyond this by conducting a direct comparative analysis of cross-border trade facilitation in Ghana and Nigeria. This approach explicitly examines the interplay between national policy environments, institutional support mechanisms, and the lived experiences of women entrepreneurs, thereby offering a more complete explanation of the contextual mechanisms that either enable or hinder women-led SME growth under the AfCFTA. ^6,7,8

Conclusion

This comparative methodological study has elucidated a critical framework for analysing the complex, gendered impacts of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) on women-led small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Ghana and Nigeria. By constructing and applying a multi-dimensional analytical matrix integrating political economy, feminist institutionalism, and comparative case study analysis, the research moves beyond aggregate assessments to foreground intersectional realities. The findings demonstrate that the translation of AfCFTA protocols into tangible benefits is neither automatic nor uniform, but is fundamentally mediated by pre-existing institutional architectures, socio-cultural norms, and pervasive gaps between formal policy and practice ^12,4,15.

The investigation confirms that while the AfCFTA provides a normative framework for intra-African trade, its implementation encounters persistent structural constraints. Women-led SMEs in both nations face formidable challenges regarding access to formal credit, border security vulnerabilities, and bureaucratic inefficiencies ^7,3,8. However, the methodological comparison reveals crucial divergences. Nigeria’s larger economy and federal structure create a more fragmented policy environment compared to Ghana, affecting the coherence of trade facilitation. Insecurity and informal networks, particularly pronounced in Nigeria’s border regions, constitute a significant analytical category inseparable from economic analysis ^9,10,22. Furthermore, non-trade factors, such as familial and personal status laws, indirectly but powerfully shape women’s capacity to own assets and engage in commerce, necessitating a holistic lens ^5,19.

The primary contribution of this work is its structured, replicable methodology for gendered trade policy analysis. It demonstrates that assessing the AfCFTA’s impact requires shifting from macro-level potential trade gains ^11,24 to a micro and meso-level examination of enabling environments. The framework explicitly connects continental policy with national implementation and localised experiences, arguing that inclusive growth will be judged not by tariff reductions alone, but by dismantling specific barriers faced by women traders. This African-centred perspective prioritises endogenous challenges and solutions ^13,16, while the comparative emphasis provides a template for analysing other African state pairings.

The derived policy implications are clear. For the AfCFTA Secretariat and national governments, findings argue for deliberately ‘gendering’ implementation strategies. This includes designing trade facilitation measures with explicit outreach to women’s business associations ². Addressing the financing gap requires gender-sensitive credit instruments and strengthened moveable asset registries, as traditional collateral excludes women ^7,6. Integrating border security management with trade facilitation is essential to protect women traders from predation ^3,23. Policy must be informed by disaggregated data and dialogue with women-led SME networks ^18,14.

Future research avenues emerge directly from this study’s boundaries. First, longitudinal application of the framework is needed to track changes as implementation progresses. Second, sector-specific analyses (e.g., agri-processing, textiles) are required for tailored policy ^25,21. Third, research must explore how digital technologies bridge or exacerbate gender divides in AfCFTA trade ^1,17. Finally, deeper ethnographic inquiry into the resilience strategies of women navigating formal and informal channels would enrich the structural analysis of agency within constraint ^20,5.

In conclusion, this study posits that the true measure of the AfCFTA’s success will be its legacy of inclusive prosperity. By providing a robust methodological toolkit, this research contributes to a more accountable, evidence-based policy discourse. It affirms that for women-led SMEs, the journey from protocol to prosperity is fraught with old hurdles and new complexities. A deliberate, context-sensitive, and gender-responsive implementation, informed by methodologies that capture these intricacies, is not an addendum but a prerequisite for unlocking the continent’s full economic potential.

References

1. Adegoriola, A.E., & Ben-Obi, O.A. (2024). Is Trade Liberalization the Oil for Poverty Reduction in Nigeria? Evidence from African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA). American Journal of Industrial and Business Management. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajibm.2024.142006
2. Adwoa, M., & Gyekye-Jandoh, A. (2024). Ethnicity and democracy in Africa. Political Science in Africa. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350299535.0015
3. Aja, U.A. (2023). ECOWAS Borderless Protocol, AfCFTA and Cross-Border Criminalities and (in)Security Challenges in West Africa. ECOWAS Protocol on Free Movement and the AfCFTA in West Africa. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5005-6_10
4. Ajayi-Nifise, A.O., Tula, S.T., Asuzu, O.F., Mhlongo, N.Z., Olatoye, F.O., & Ibeh, C.V. (2024). THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT POLICY IN FOSTERING ENTREPRENEURSHIP: A USA AND AFRICA REVIEW. International Journal of Management & Entrepreneurship Research. https://doi.org/10.51594/ijmer.v6i2.775
5. Andi, D., Mukhlas, O.S., & Khosyi’ah, S. (2025). Potret Hukum Keluarga Muslim Di Nigeria, Somalia, dan Ghana. Pena Justisia: Media Komunikasi dan Kajian Hukum. https://doi.org/10.31941/pj.v24i1.6810
6. Azeita, O.S., & Usunobun, I.V. (2025). Risk Management Committee and Credit Risk Exposure of Banks in Nigeria, Ghana and South Africa: A Comparative Approach. Global Journal of Economic and Finance Research. https://doi.org/10.55677/gjefr/01-2025-vol02e8
7. Chibueze, T., Adeshina, T., Christopher, L.U., Ewubajo, S.D., & Ebere, L. (2025). Access to credit and financial inclusion of MSMEs in sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and opportunities. International Journal of Financial Management and Economics. https://doi.org/10.33545/26179210.2025.v8.i2.609
8. Enyia, D.J., Enyia, S.J., Osim-Asu, D., Agba, A.I., & Ogochukwu, C.J. (2024). A Comparative Study of Sustainable Energy Brayton Cycles in the Oil and Gas Industry. Part 1: Performance. International Journal of Emerging Science and Engineering. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijese.i2583.12100924
9. Favour, J.T. (2023). Exploring Informal Cross-Border Trade and Its Impact on Security Challenges in Nigeria: A Case Study of the Nigeria-Benin Border. Advances in Economics and Business. https://doi.org/10.13189/aeb.2023.110301
10. Ikotun, O. (2023). Gendered Insecurity and Mobility in West African Borderlands: Putting the Nigeria/Niger Border in Perspective. ECOWAS Protocol on Free Movement and the AfCFTA in West Africa. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5005-6_3
11. Jato, T.P.J., Nwankwo, N., & Awuzie, E.I. (2023). Evaluation of the Potential of Trade Gains for Nigeria in the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2567717/v1
12. Lateef, M.A. (2025). From protocol to practice: the implementation of investment facilitation commitments underthe AfCFTA. Journal of International Trade Law and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1108/jitlp-03-2025-0015
13. Mhonyera, G., & Meyer, D.F. (2023). The Impact of AfCFTA on Welfare and Trade: Nigeria and South Africa in Light of Core Export Competences. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065090
14. Mutesi, J., Mutarindwa, S., Mukasekuru, A., & Shyaka, G. (2025). Digital readiness and business performance of Rwandan women entrepreneurs in cross-border trade under the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). Cogent Business & Management. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2025.2518248
15. Niesten, H., & Kobina Amoako, I. (2024). Comparative Analysis of the Implementation of Electronic Money Transfer Levies in Ghana and Nigeria: Policies, Legal Frameworks, and Outcomes. https://doi.org/10.19088/ictd.2024.062
16. Nketiah, E., Adeleye, B.N., & Okoye, L.U. (2024). Comparative Investigation of Growth-Led Energy and Environmental Kuznets Curve Hypotheses in Ghana and Nigeria. Journal of the Knowledge Economy. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-024-02224-0
17. Nwokike, C. (2025). Artificial Intelligence and Economic Growth in Africa: A Study of the Business Sector in Nigeria. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5345588
18. Ofosu, M.A., & Owiredu, E. (2025). Socioeconomic and Cultural Determinants of Family Planning Decision Making Among Rural and Urban Women in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Comparative Analysis of Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5211768
19. Ogayemi, C., Filani, O.M., & Osho, G.O. (2025). A Cross-Border Pharmaceutical Operations Framework for Regulatory Compliance and Supply Chain Resilience in Sub-Saharan Africa. Engineering and Technology Journal. https://doi.org/10.47191/etj/v10i07.40
20. Okunade, S.K. (2023). Border Closure in Nigeria: Implications for the AfCFTA and Communities on the Benin–Nigeria Corridor. ECOWAS Protocol on Free Movement and the AfCFTA in West Africa. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5005-6_6
21. Olayanju Jayeola, A. (2025). POLICY DEVELOPMENTS ON CROSS-BORDER DATA TRANSFERS  AND DIGITAL TRADE IN NIGERIA. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5046169
22. Onwudiegwu, O.A. (2025). NAVIGATING THE LEGAL LANDSCAPE OF CROSS-BORDER DATA TRANSFER AND DIGITAL TRADE IN NIGERIA. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5149446
23. Philip, J., Lawrence, O., & Bidemi, O. (2023). GLOBALIZATION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN NIGERIA. International Journal of Comparative Studies in International Relations and Development. https://doi.org/10.48028/iiprds/ijcsird/ijcsird.v9.i1.05
24. Samy, Y., Adedeji, A., Iraoya, A., Dutta, M.K., Fakmawii, J.L., & Hao, W. (2023). Trade and Women’s Economic Empowerment. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39039-5
25. Shahriar, S., & Abdullahi, N.M. (2023). Nigeria–Benin Border Trade in the Context of the ECOWAS. ECOWAS Protocol on Free Movement and the AfCFTA in West Africa. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5005-6_4
26. Tsietsi, T. (2024). Women and Trade in Africa: A Case for Mainstreaming Gender in the Implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA). Indian Journal of International Economic Law. https://doi.org/10.55496/rayf5586
27. Wali, A.I. (2025). INFORMAL CROSS-BORDER TRADE AND DRUG TRAFFICKING IN NIGERIA: A STUDY OF MAGAMA-JIBIA BORDER OF KATSINA STATE (2019-2024). FUGUS Journal of Public Administration and Management. https://doi.org/10.36349/fujpam.2025.v4i01.005
28. Wokekoro, W., & Elvis PhD, O. (2025). Leveraging the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA): Nigeria’s Path to Export-Led Growth. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews. https://doi.org/10.55248/gengpi.6.0125.0428