Collaborative Governance and Sanitation Infrastructure: A Mixed Methods Network Analysis of Women-Led Civil Society and Urban Planning in Dar es Salaam

In Dar es Salaam, informal settlements face critical sanitation deficits. Although women-led civil society organisations (WCSOs) are pivotal in addressing these challenges, the structure and efficacy of their collaborative networks with formal city planning authorities remain poorly understood. This study examines the patterns and quality of collaboration between WCSOs and municipal planning departments in urban sanitation governance. It aims to map the formal and informal network structures, assess their influence on project outcomes, and identify barriers to effective partnership. A sequential explanatory mixed-methods design was employed, integrating quantitative social network analysis (SNA) with qualitative enquiry. A survey of 42 organisations mapped inter-organisational ties and calculated centrality metrics. Subsequently, 24 in-depth interviews with key actors were conducted to interpret the SNA findings and explore underlying relational dynamics. The network analysis revealed a centralised, brokerage-dependent structure, with 72% of resource and information flows channelled through only three key WCSOs. Qualitative data elucidated a recurring theme of ‘conditional inclusion,’ whereby WCSOs were consulted on operational service delivery but systematically excluded from upstream budgetary and infrastructural planning decisions. The findings demonstrate that collaborative networks are characterised by asymmetric power, which limits the transformative potential of WCSOs and reinforces existing hierarchies. Their inclusion remains instrumental rather than substantive. To strengthen governance, municipal authorities should institutionalise co-design mechanisms with WCSOs from the project inception phase, while donor programmes must support capacity building for network weaving to decentralise brokerage roles and build resilient, redundant ties.